M 




Class _SFJL0A_ 
Book .13_. 



coraRiGin' DEPOsrr. 




An Ideal Feeder's Head. 

Hereford steer, Peerless Wilton 39th's Defender, Grand Champion al 
the International Live Stock Show in 1906. Bred, fed and exhibited by 
Mr. F. A. Nave, Attica, Ind. Sold to Iowa State College. 



Types and Market Classes 
of Live Stock 




By 

H/WA/AUGHAN, M. Sc. in Agr. 

Professor of Animal Husbandry 
University of Minnesota 



FIFTH EDITION 
Revised 



R. G. ADAMS & CO, 

COLUMBUS, OHIO 

1919 



^ 
^^* 

^^^ 



,f^^ 



^"^ 



COPYRIGHT, 1919 

BY 

H. W. V AUG HAN 



THE CHAMPLIN PRESS 
COLUMBUS, OHIC 



0)CI.A565069 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 

During the past eight years there has been added to the 
curriculum in most of our agricultural colleges a new course 
dealing with the types of farm animals, market demands, and 
market classes of live stock. More properly speaking, it has 
been inserted at the very beginning of the work in animal hus- 
bandry, forming, as it logically does, the foundation course in 
the study of that important branch of agriculture. This is a 
soundly practical study; the student is brought to a much clearer 
conception of values and a much better appreciation of live 
stock than was possible under the former system of teaching. 

Recognizing the need of a text on this subject which could 
be placed in the hands of students, the writer prepared and 
printed a loose-leaf edition which has been used at Ohio State 
University during the past three years. This met with favor- 
able comment, and requests have been made that the material 
be put into book form. After careful revision and the addition 
of a number of illustrations, this is now attempted in the hope 
that students and teachers and the general reader as well may 
find such a book useful. 

The arrangement of the subject-matter corresponds to 
the order usually followed in teaching, but may be varied as 
desired, each section of the book— Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, and 
Horses — being complete in itself. 

The writer desires to express his indebtedness to numer- 
ous commission men, buyers for the packing houses, and others 
who have kindly given their assistance during his quests for 
information, and to numerous experiment station publications, 
particularly the series of excellent bulletins issued by the Illi- 
nois Station setting forth the results of their studies of the 
Chicago and St. Louis markets. Acknowledgment of valued 
assistance is due my present co-workers, and also Professors 
C. S. Plumb and F. R. Marshall at Ohio State University. 

Iowa State College, H. W. VAUGHAN. 

July, 1915. 



PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION. 

At most agricultural colleges, the study of beef cattle begins 
with the fat steer at the market, both on foot and in the carcass, 
proceeds from that to a study of cattle in the feed-lot, and then 
considers the selection and operation of the breeding herd. 
Similar procedures are followed in studying other kinds of live 
stock. If the student learns his first lesson at the market, 
he comes to the feed-lot fortified with a knowledge of what the 
market wants, and he then proceeds to a study of the breeding 
herd knowing what both the market and the feed-lot demand 
from the breeder. 

This is the most practical method of teaching because the 
market should serve as a guide to the breeder and feeder; and 
it is best from a pedagogical standpoint because finished animals 
for the market are easiest to judge, are judged on practical points, 
the student begins his judging with the more elementary and 
proceeds to the more complex types, and as he progresses to 
each new stage he brings with him a soundly practical viewpoint 
gained from his previous experience. Finally, in his study of 
the commercial breeding herd, the produce of which goes direct 
to the feed-lot or market, he learns the necessity for using good 
purebred sires, and this leads in logical order to the study of the 
breeds of farm animals. He takes up the breed studies with a 
clear understanding that it is the function of these breeds to 
supply seed to improve all farm and range live stock, he has a 
firm belief in their power to perform this function, and he is 
led to compare and value the various breeds as they should be 
compared and valued, namely on their ability to meet practical 
requirements. In short, the modern plan of study, which 
proceeds from the market to the breeds, rather than from the 
breeds to the market, gives the student the right philosophy 
of the live-stock business, particularly the purebred live-stock 
business. 

In the first edition of this book, published in 1915, the 
undersigned endeavored to present clearly and concisely the 
things a beginner in the field of Animal Husbandry should know, 
leading up to, but not including, the study of the breeds. The 



10 Preface to Fifth Edition 

favor with which the book was received far surpassed the expec- 
tations of those responsible for its appearance, and led to three 
reprintings of the original edition. Thus encouraged, the book 
has been rewritten so as to bring it up to date and give it greater 
clearness and accuracy, yet retaining the original plan without 
any radical changes. 

A number of new illustrations are included. At the sug- 
gestion of several instructors at various colleges, three new chap- 
ters, III., VIL, and XXXVII. , have been added. These addi- 
tions meet the test applied to all parts of the book, namely 
they treat concisely of subjects concerning which the beginner 
should be informed before taking up more advanced studies 
in animal husbandry. 

University of Minnesota, H. W. VAUGHAN. 

July, 1919. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



An Ideal Feeder's Head. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) — Frontispiece 



Fig. Page 

1. Points of the Steer 28 

2. Points of the Steer 29 

3. Correct Type in the Fat Steer. (Photograph by Mr. F. E. 

Colburn. Courtesy Iowa State College.) 32 

4. A Steer with Excellent Lines. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) . 34 

5. A Feed-Lot Model. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 37 

6. Knocking Cattle 40 

7. Wholesale Cuts of Beef 43 

8. Cuts of Beef Indicated in the Live Animal. (Courtesy Iowa 

State College.) 45 

9. Beef Ribs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 50 

10. Well-Marbled Beef. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 51 

11. Dairy-Type Steer. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 63 

12. Dairy-Type Steer. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 67 

13. Carcasses of Beef and Dairy Calves. (Courtesy Iowa State 

College.) 69 

14. Carcasses of Beef and Dairy Calves. (Courtesy Iowa State 

College.) 70 

15. Union Stock Yards, Chicago. (Courtesy Mr. A. G. Leonard 

and Union Stock Yard and Transit Co.) 77 

16. Ideal of Early Beef Producers. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 86 

17. Prime Baby Beef. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 88 

18. Baby Beeves on Feed. (Courtesy Prof. A. B. Caine, Iowa 

State College.) 89 

19. Prime Fat Heifer. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W. 

Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 91 

20. Fancy Selected Feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. 

H. W. Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 96 

21. An Average Load of Steers on Feed. (Courtesy Iowa State 

College.) 101 

22. Fancy Feeder Calves ^ 103 

23. Prime Fat Steers " 108 

24. Choice Fat Steers 109 

25. Good Fat Steers. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W. 

Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 110 

26. Prime Baby Beeves. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) Ill 

27. Old-Time Texas Long-Horn. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, 

Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.) 112 

28. Modern Western Range Cattle. 113 

29. Good to Choice Heifer. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. 

H. W. Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 114 

11 



12 Illustrations 

Fig. Page 

30. Good Cutters. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W. 

Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 115 

31. Common or Inferior Canners. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy 

Prof. H. W. Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 116 

32. Choice Feeder. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W. 

Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 117 

33. Good Feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W. 

Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 118 

34. Medium Feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W. 

Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 119 

35. Common or Inferior Feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy 

Prof. H. W. Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 120 

36. Choice Veal Calf. (From 111. Bui {IS. Courtesy Prof. H. W. 

Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 121 

37. Correct Type in the Beef Sire 132 

38. Correct Type in the Beef Cow 134 

39. An Excellent Breeding Cow. (Courtesy Iowa State College.). . 136 

40. Points of the Dairy Cow 139 

41. A Dairy Cow with Utility Points Emphasized. (Courtesy Iowa 

State Department of Agriculture.) 141 

42. A Combination of Beauty and Utility 142 

43. Excellent Type in the Dairy Cow 144 

44. An Inferior Dairy Cow 148 

45. Excellent Type in the Dairy Bull. (Courtesy Iowa State 

Department of Agriculture.) 152 

46. A Dairy Bull with Strength and Vigor 153 

47. Cross-Section of Cow's Udder. (From Sisson's Anatomy of the 

Domestic Animals. Courtesy Dr. Septimus Sisson, Ohio 
State University.) 156 

48. Where Milk is Made 158 

49. Circulation To and From the Udder 159 

50. What Good Purebred Sires Can Do. (From Iowa Bui. 188. 

Courtesy Prof. A. C. McCandlish, Iowa State College.) 174 

51. The Dual-Purpose Type. (Courtesy Mr. J. .J. Hill, St. Paul, 

Minn.) 181 

52. The Dual-Purpose Type (Courtesy Mr. Geo. P. Grout, Duluth, 

Minn.) 183 

53. Points of the Sheep 195 

54. Correct Type in the Fat Wether 197 

55. Long-Wool Sheep. (Courtesy Iowa State Department of 

Agriculture.) 199 

56. Killing Sheep at Chicago 204 

57. Wholesale Cuts of Mutton 206 

58. Round-Joint and Break-Joints 209 

59. Prime Native Lambs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 216 

60. Prime Western Lambs. (Courtesy Armour & Company, Chi- 

cago, 111.) 218 

61. Choice Western Lambs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 219 



Illustrations 13 

Fig. Page 

62. Good Lambs. (Courtesy Prof. W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experi- 

ment Station.) 220 

63. Common or Cull Lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof. 

W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 221 

64. Prime Native Yearlings. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 222 

65. Prime Western Yearlings. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy 

Prof. W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 223 

66. Good Yearlings. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof. W. C. 

Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 224 

67. Common Wethers. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof. W. C. 

Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 225 

68. Fancy Selected Feeder Lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129. Cour- 

tesy Prof. W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 227 

69. Good Feeder Lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof. 

W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 228 

70. Common Feeder Lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof. 

W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 229 

71. Correct Type in the Mutton Breeding Ram. (Courtesy Mr. 

Alan Eltringham, Babraham, Cambridge, England.) 238 

72. Correct Type in the Breeding Ewe 241 

73. A Prize-Winning Flock 242 

74. A Flock of Uniform Type 243 

75. Class A Merino Ram. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. 

Bureau of Animal Industry.) 246 

76. Class B Merino Ram. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. 

Bureau of Animal Industry.) 248 

77. Class C Merino Ram. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. 

Bureau of Animal Industry.) 251 

78. Class B Merino Ewe. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. 

Bureau of Animal Industry.) 252 

79. Rambouillet Ewe. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau 

of Animal Industry.) 253 

80. Wool Fiber Highly Magnified 255 

81. Cross-Section of a Wool Fiber 256 

82. Woolen and Worsted Yarns. (From U. S. House of Rep. Doc. 

342, Wool and Manufactures of Wool.) 258 

83. Clothing ahd Combing Wools. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 

Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry.) 261 

84. Grades of Combing Wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 

Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry.) 263 

85. Grades of Combing Wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 

Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry.) 265 

86. Grades of Combing Wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 

Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry.) 266 



14 Illustrations 

Fig. Page 

87. Tender Wool Showing Break. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 

Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry.) 275 

88. Points of the Hog 284 

89. Correct Type in the Fat Barrow 286 

90. Finished Barrows. (Courtesy National Duroc-Jersey Record 

Association.) 288 

91. Fancy Market Bacon Pig. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) .... 292 

92. Correct Bacon Type. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 295 

93. The Hog Hoist 298 

94. Dressing Hogs 299 

95. A View of the Pork Coolers 300 

96. Wholesale Cuts of Pork. (After 111. Bui. 147.) 302 

97. Effect of Underline on Trimming of Side 304 

98. Fat and Bacon Carcasses Compared. (Courtesy Iowa State 

College.) 307 

99. Unloading Hogs at Chicago 320 

100. Prime Heavy Hogs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 323 

101. Prime Butcher Hogs 324 

102. Choice Butcher Hogs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 325 

103. Packing Sow 326 

104. An Excellent Boar. (Courtesy Mr. W. H. Robbins, Springfield, 

Ohio.) 332 

105. Pork Production in United States Closely Related to Corn Pro- 

duction 335 

106. Good Type in the Breeding Boar. (Courtesy Iowa State De- 

partment of Agriculture.) 341 

107. Good Type in the Breeding Sow. (Courtesy Iowa State De- 

partment of Agriculture.) 342 

108. Skeleton of the Horse. (From Sisson's Anatomy of the Domes- 

tic Animals, after Ellenberger & Baum, Anatomy for Artists. 

Courtesy Dr. Septimus Sisson, Ohio State University.) 349 

109. Bones of the Fore Leg 351 

110. Fore Leg from Knee to Ground 352 

111. Bones, Tendons, and Ligaments of the Fore Leg 353 

112. Bones of the Hock 354 

113. Man and Horse Compared. (From the Book of the Horse, by 

permission of the Gresham Publishing Company, London.) . . 355 

114. Exterior of the Hoof 355 

115. Diagram Showing Structure of Foot 356 

116. The Parts of the Hoof 358 

117. Attachment of Fore Leg to Body. (From the Book of the 

Horse, by permission of the Gresham Publishing Company, 

London.) 361 

118. The Horse in Motion 364 

119. Front View of Fore Legs 366 

120. Side View of Fore Legs 366 

121. Side View of Hind Legs 367 

122. Rear View of Hind Legs 367 



Illustrations 15 

Fig. Page 

123. Defects in Fore Legs and Their Effect on Action 368 

124. Sickle Hock 370 

125. Points of the Horse 387 

126. The Draft Type 389 

127. Heavy Drafters in Harness 395 

128. Before and After Fattening. (Courtesy Mr. B. E. Carmichael, 

Ohio Experiment Station.) 398 

129. Carriage or Heavy-Harness Type. (Courtesy Prof. C. N. 

Arnett, Montana State College.) 400 

130. The Heavy-Harness Type in Action. (Courtesy Mr. Wm. 

Little, Irvington Farm, Sewickley, Pa.) 402 

131. The Carriage Horse in Harness. (Courtesy The Spur, New 

York City.) 404 

132. Sensational Action. (Courtesy The Spur, New York City.) . . . 407 

133. Roadster or Light-Harness Type. (Courtesy Hon. John R. 

Thompson, Libertyville, 111.) , 413 

134. The Light-Harness Horse in Action 416 

135. Five-Gaited Saddle Horse. (Courtesy Mrs. R. Tasker 

Lowndes, Danville, Ky.) 420 

136. The Saddle Horse in Action. (Courtesy Mrs. R. Tasker 

Lowndes, Danville, Ky.) 421 

137. The Three-Gaited Saddle Type 423 

138. A Typical Hunter. (From Nimrod's Condition of Hunters, by 

permission of the John Lane Company, New York City.) .... 430 

139. The Hunter in Action. (Courtesy The Field, New York City.) 431 

140. A Hunt Team and Pack of Fox Hounds. (From Nimrod's 

Condition of Hunters, by permission of the John Lane Com- 
pany, New York City.) 432 

141. Polo Pony of Excellent Type. (Courtesy The Spur, New York 

City.) 435 

142. The Polo Pony in Action. (Courtesy Mr. Harold A. Taylor, 

Coronado, Cal.) 436 

143. Horse Market at Union Stock Yards, Chicago 439 

144. Eastern Chunk. (Courtesy Prof. C. N. Arnett, Montana State 

College.) 443 

145. Express Horse. (Courtesy Capt. M. G. Thornburg, Command- 

ing Officer Remount Service Training Camp, Auxiliary Re- 
mount Depot, Camp Joseph E. Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla.) 445 

146. Light Artillery Horse. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 447 

147. Heavy Artillery Horses. (Courtesy Capt. M. G. Thornburg, 

Commanding Officer Remount Service Training Camp, 
Auxiliary Remount Depot, Camp Joseph E. Johnston, Jack- 
sonville, Fla.) 448 

148. Fire Horses 449 

149. Runabout Horse 452 

150. Cavalry Horse. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 453 

151. High-Class Pony. (Courtesy Mr. Geo. A. Heyl, Washington, 

111.) 454 

152. Correct Type in the Draft Stallion ". 458 



16 Illustrations 

Fig. Page 

1 53. Correct Type in the Draft Mare. (Courtesy Iowa State Depart- 

ment of Agriculture.) 460 

154. A Highly Successful Sire. (Courtesy Mr. Wm. Crownover, 

Hudson, Iowa.) 462 

155. Blood Will Tell. (Courtesy Truman Pioneer Stock Farm, Bush- 

nell, 111.) 464 

156. Correct Type in the Jack. (Courtesy Mr. L. M. Monsees, 

Pettis County, Mo.) 469 

157. Prize- Winning Mules ' 470 

158. High-Class Draft Mules 473 

159. Mining or Pack Mule. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 474 

160. Cotton or Lead Mule. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 475 

161. Sugar Mule. (Courtesy Capt. M. G. Thornburg, Commanding 

Officer Remount Service Training Camp, Auxiliary Remount 
Depot, Camp Joseph E. Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla.) 476 

162. Farm or Wheel Mule. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 477 

163. Small Pair of Wheel Mules to Army Wagon. (Courtesy Capt. 

M. G. Thornburg, Commanding Officer Remount Service 
Training Camp, Auxiliary Remount Depot, Camp Joseph E. 

Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla.) 478 

164. Bog Spavin 482 

165. Bone Spavin 483 

166. Curb 486 

167. Ringbone and Cocked Ankle 489 



CONTENTS. 

Page 

General Introduction 19 

PART ONE— CATTLE 
Chapter 

Introduction 23 

I. Beef Type 27 

II. The Beef Carcass 40 

III. Packing House By-Products from Cattle 57 

IV. The Value of Type in Beef Making 63 

V. American Cattle Markets 71 

VI. Fashions in Market Cattle 85 

VII. Selection of Feeder Steers 95 

VIII. Market Classes and Grades of Cattle 106 

IX. Breeding for the Market 125 

X. Dairy Type 138 

XI. The Secretion of Milk 155 

XII. Variations in the Usefulness of Dairy Cows 164 

XIII. Breeding for Milk Production 172 

XIV. Dual-Purpose Cattle 180 

PART TWO— SHEEP 

Introduction 189 

XV. Mutton Type 194 

XVI. The Mutton Carcass and the Pelt 203 

XVII. Sheep Markets and Market Classification 214 

XVIII. Breeding for the Market 235 

XIX. The Merino or Fine-Wool Type 245 

XX. Wools and Wool Growing 255 

PART THREE— SWINE 

Introduction 279 

XXI. The American or Lard-Type Hog 282 

XXII. The Bacon-Type Hog 290 

XXIII. The Hog Carcass 297 

XXIV. Hog Markets and Pork Packing — Past and Present 314 

XXV. Market Classification of Syrine 322 

XXVI. Breeding for the Market 332 

PART FOUR— HORSES 

Introduction 345 

XXVII. Brief Anatomical Study of the Horse 348 

XXVIII. Some Important Facts Concerning the Horse 361 

17 



18 



Contents 



Chapter Page 

XXIX. Origin of the Types of Horses 374 

XXX. Draft Type 384 

XXXI. The Carriage or Heavy-Harness Horse 400 

XXXII. The Roadster or Light-Harness Horse 409 

XXXIII. The Saddle Horse 418 

XXXIV. The Hunter and Polo Pony 428 

XXXV. Market Classes of Horses 438 

XXXVI. Horse Breeding 457 

XXXVII. The Mule 468 

XXXVIII. Market Classes of Mules 472 

XXXIX. Unsoundness in the Horse 480 

Index 493 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 

Two distinct systems of farming are practiced in the United 
States— (1) grain farming and (2) live-stock farming. Grain 
farming is the growing of crops useful for food or clothing, the 
income being derived from the sale of these crops. Live-stock 
farming is that system in which the crops are used chiefly or 
entirely as feed for the live stock which is produced, the income 
being derived from the sale of animals, milk, and wool. 

The maintenance of soil fertility is more difficult under the 
first of these two systems. Although it has been experimentally 
demonstrated that fertility may be maintained and increased 
by the use of commercial fertilizers and green manures without 
the aid of live stock, nevertheless the keeping of live stock and 
the utilization of farm manure afford the easiest method of 
maintaining and increasing the fertility of the soil. Where 
farming has been practiced for a long period of time, the most 
fertile and prosperous communities are those in which much 
live stock has been kept and the manure properly handled and 
applied to the soil. 

Of the two systems, live-stock farming affords much greater 
opportunity for the development and application of knowledge 
and skill. The live-stock farmer must be equally competent 
as a crop producer with the grain farmer, and in addition must 
know how to handle and feed live stock economically. He must 
have a certain practical knowledge of animals and their require- 
ments which comes with long experience, but which can be 
readily acquired by one who has a liking for farm animals. 

Dr. C. E. Thorne of the Ohio Experiment Station has said, 
"While it is true that meat is an extravagantly wasteful food, 
viewed solely from the economic standpoint, yet it is also true 
that the ruling peoples of the earth are the meat eaters, and 
the time is probably far in the future when in this country meat 
will be banished from the tables of any but the improvident, 
even though further advance in its cost should take place. The 
outlook, therefore, is that for a long time to come the farmer 
who possesses the ability to handle live stock successfully will 
find ample opportunity for the exercise of his talents and ample 
reward for the larger ability which such exercise involves." 

19 



20 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The keeping of live stock on the farm provides a means 
of utihzing as feed or bedding much that would otherwise be 
wasted. This applies to large amounts of roughage such as 
straw and corn stalks. Meadow aftermath and rough or stony 
land unsuited for the plow may be grazed, unmarketable soft 
corn may be fed, and other similar wastes may be converted 
into profits where live stock is kept. 

Experiments indicate that if animals were kept in stalls or 
pens throughout the year and the manure carefully saved, the 
approximate value of the manure produced by each horse or 
mule would be $27, by each head of cattle $20, by each hog $4, 
and by each sheep $2. The total fertilizing value of the manure 
produced in the United States in one year would, therefore, be 
$2,477,100,000. In this estimate, no account is taken of the 
value of the manure for improving the mechanical condition 
and drainage of soils, which is fully as great as the value of the 
phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen contained in farm manure. 

When fed to animals, a large proportion (about 80 per cent.) 
of the fertilizing element of the feed is recovered in the excre- 
ment. For example, if a ton of corn is sold off the farm, it 
removes fertility to the value of $6.56; while if fed to animals, 
this ton of corn results in manure worth, while fresh, $5 24. If 
this manure is properly handled and applied to the soil, little 
of its fertilizing value will be lost. The corresponding figures 
for one ton of oats are $7.43 and $5.94 respectively, for timothy 
$5.21 and $4.16, red clover $8.79 and $7.03, alfalfa $8.76 and 
$7.00, oat straw $3.30 and $2.64, corn silage $1.22 and $0.97, 
whole milk $1.96 and $1.52. In many instances the best method 
of increasing the fertility of a farm is to buy feeds which may be 
fed profitably to the live stock on hand, and then carefully 
handle and apply the manure produced. For example, a ton 
of cottonseed meal or wheat bran used for feed gives manure 
worth, while fresh, $19.20 and $10.19 respectively. 

The live-stock farmer who fails to harvest the manure 
crop carefully is surely overlooking a great source of profit. 
On the other hand, animals should not be regarded merely as 
fertilizer factories. The manure produced by farm stock, while 
valuable, is secondary in importance to the value of the animals 
themselves. The stockman converts his crops into animal 
products of higher value to man, aiming thereby to reap a larger 
profit than is possible by the grain-farming system, and at the 
same time he increases the fertility of his land. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 21 

The advantages of live-stock farming may be summarized 
as follows: 

1. Live-stock production, properly conducted, is a profit- 
able business, 

2. It provides a home market and pays better than average 
prices for farm crops. 

3. Makes easily possible the maintenance and improve- 
ment of soil fertility. 

4. Gives steady employment throughout the year to labor 
on the farm and thereby helps to solve the farm labor problem. 

5. Utilizes as pasture much land unfit for the plow. 

6. Utilizes much that would otherwise be waste on the 
farm, such as straw, corn stalks, soft corn and other unsaleable 
grain, meadow aftermath, many weeds, and garbage. 

7. Affords the best means of utilizing such by-products 
as tankage, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, and 
skim milk. 

8. Affords opportunity for higher development and appli- 
cation of skill in farming. 

9. The care and handling of live stock is intensely inter- 
esting work. 

The stockman's success depends very largely upon the 
degree to which his animals meet with favor on the live-stock 
market. If he is to make a financial success of his business, 
he must produce what the market wants. Far too many feeders 
of live stock lack acquaintance with market demands. Far too 
many breeders devote themselves to a breed simply because it 
satisfies a hobby and because the breed appeals to their fancy, 
rather than because they see in their animals any special utility. 
Unless a breed of beef cattle makes possible the production of 
better beef for the market; unless a breed of swine is fostered 
because in it is seen the possibility of improving the quality or 
cheapening the cost of pork; unless a breed of draft horses is 
really useful when put to the test in the collar; then such breeds 
have little excuse for their existence, and those who foster them 
must sooner or later suffer financially for their efforts. Both 
the breeder and the feeder must know the demands of the open, 
market and keep them always in mind. 

The word "purebred" has a wonderful charm to many 
persons, and perhaps rightly so, yet many an animal, very in- 
ferior from a utility point of view, has brought a large price 
merely because it had a pedigree and a registration number. 



22 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The word "imported," when prefixed to an animal's name, lends 
even greater charm. The greatest breeders of the past refused 
to be carried away by any charm of family history or lure of 
names. They rode no hobbies. They were intensely practical; 
they never overlooked the market requirements of the kind of 
animals they bred. No animal met with favor in their eyes 
unless such favor was earned by meat upon the back, milk in 
the pail, weight and quality of wool, pounds gained for pounds 
of feed consumed, or some other performance of practical value. 
With them it was a question of ultimately furnishing better 
animals for the market or lowering the cost of production. It 
must be just so with the master breeders of the present and 
future. 

These pages aim to familiarize the reader with the types 
of farm animals, market demands, and market classes of live 
stock, such knowledge being fundamental in all live-stock work 
and study, and valuable not only to breeders and feeders, but 
to all persons who buy and use animals. 



PART ONE. 
CATTLE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Cattle are useful to man because they produce meat and 
milk, both of which are in such demand that the production 
and marketing of them engage the attention of many thou- 
sands of people in America. Over two-fifths of the expendi- 
tures of families of medium income is for food. About one-third 
of the national dietary is composed of meat. Milk, butter, 
and cheese are produced in vast and increasing quantities, being 
staple articles of food. 

America has been an exporter of beef and dairy products 
to the value of many millions of dollars annually. During the 
last few years these exports have declined markedly and we 
have now begun to import beef from South America. The 
United States practically dominated the world's export trade 
in fresh, chilled, and frozen beef with its contribution of over 
63 per cent, of the total export trade of the nine surplus countries 
for the ten years 1895-1904. For the next five years the average 
fell to 33 per cent., and in the next year, 1910, the fraction was 
9.4 per cent.; in 1911,4.9 per cent.; and in 1912, only 1.6 per cent. 
While the United States was experiencing this downfpll in exports 
of beef, Argentina grew from 17 per cent, of the total export 
trade in the earlier years to 80 per cent, in 1912. If to this be 
added the 15 per cent, due to Australia, and 3 per cent, due to 
New Zealand, in 1912, almost the entire export trade in this 
class of beef is accounted for. 

The decline in America's exports of beef is partially due to 
a decrease in production, but is chiefly due to a population in- 
creasing at such a tremendous rate that the increase in home 
production of food does not keep parallel with it The United 
States had 7 millions of people in 1810, 17 millions in 1840, 
38 millions in 1870, 76 millions in 1900, and 93 millions in 1910. 
Will it not be 150 millions in 1940, and 200 millions in 1960? 
Furthermore, only one-third of the population having census 
occupations is agricultural, and the fraction has declined from 

23 



24 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

83 per cent, in 1820 to 77.5 per cent, in 1840, 47 per cent, in 
1870, 44 per cent, in 1880, 39 per cent in 1890, 35 per cent, in 
1900, and 32.4 per cent, in 1910. These figures do not mean 
that our agricultural population has absolutely declined; on 
the contrary, it was never so large in number as it is today, 
with over 33,000,000 men, women, and children. The point 
is that the consumers of food-stuffs in America have increased 
at a much more rapid rate than have the producers. The 
producer of live stock in this country is assured of ready sale 
for all his products at remunerative prices. 

Excepting Australia and New Zealand, the inhabitants of 
the United States are the most liberal eaters of beef, mutton, 
and pork. The average per capita consumption of dressed beef 
in this country was 78.4 pounds in 1918, and the total consump- 
tion of dressed beef, veal, mutton, pork, and lard amounted to 
193.5 pounds per capita. According to the latest available 
figures, Cuba follows with 124 pounds, the United Kingdom 
119 pounds, Germany 113 pounds, France 80 pounds, Denmark 
76 pounds, Belgium 70 pounds, and Sweden 62 pounds. The 
average for Australia is 262,6 pounds, and for New Zealand 
212.5 pounds. 

The production of beef, mutton, and pork throughout 
the world, outside of China, is estimated to be about 50 billion 
pounds a year, dressed weight, including lard. The United 
States by far leads all other countries in the production as well 
as the consumption of meat and meat products. The census 
of 1910 estimated that the meat produced in the United States 
in the year was 16,940,000,000 pounds, embracing beef, vealj 
mutton, lamb, and pork, including lard. If the extra-edible 
parts are added, the grand total for 1910 was 19,712,000,000 
pounds. Slaughtering and meat packing ranks first in value 
of products among all the manufacturing industries of the 
United States. 

Milk may be regarded as more fixed than meat in the family 
dietary. The number of milk cows in this country has steadily 
increased from the earliest enumeration in the census of 1850, 
when the number of these cows on farms was 6,400,000, to the 
last census of 1910, when the number was 20,600,000. The 
estimate for 1919 is 23,467,000. The yield of milk per cow in 
1918 was estimated to be 8,2 quarts per day for 287 days of the 
year, or 588 gallons. Assuming that 80 per cent, of the total 
number of dairy cows are of milking age, the total production of 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 25 

milk on farms in the United States was 11,044,000,000 gallons 
in 1918. If the production of cows in towns and villages were 
included it would add about 5 per cent, to the above estimate. 

Experience has shown that it requires a certain kind or 
type of cow to produce a large flow of milk, and quite a differ- 
ent kind to produce beef. For this reason, two distinct kinds 
of cattle have been developed — dairy cattle and beef cattle. 
The dairy cow possesses certain characteristics which make her 
useful as a machine for producing milk, and we call this combi- 
nation of characteristics dairy type. Likewise, the beef animal 
has certain characteristics which stamp it as an animal that 
will convert feed into flesh rather than into milk, and we call 
this combination of characteristics beef type. This gives us an 
understanding of what is meant by type, and we may now define 
type by saying it is that combination of characteristics desired 
by the breeder which makes an animal highly useful for a specific 
purpose. 

Some breeders have endeavored to establish what is called 
a dual-purpose type of cattle. They believe there is need of a 
cow that can produce both beef and milk, and they have, there- 
fore, tried to combine dairy tjrpe and beef type as nearly as 
possible. The dual-purpose cow does not give as much milk 
as the dairy cow, nor does she make as much beef as the beef 
cow. At present the demand for dual-purpose cattle is com- 
paratively limited, but some authorities have predicted that 
many farms will ultimately adopt the dual-purpose type as the 
one most profitable. 

Various breeds of cattle have been evolved to meet the 
demands for each of the three types of cattle. Each breed has 
its own peculiar and special features not found in individuals 
of other breeds. These special characteristics constitute what 
is called the breed type. For example, there are six breeds of 
beef cattle all of which possess beef type, yet each breed is dis- 
tinctive in certain points which make up the breed type. 

The breeds of beef cattle are the Shorthorn, Polled Shorthorn, 
Hereford, Polled Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, and Galloway. 

The dairy breeds are the Holstein-Friesian, Jersey, Guern- 
sey, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Dutch Belted, French Canadian, 
and Kerry. 

Dual-purpose demands are met by the Red Polled and the 
Devon. The Shorthorn breed is also noted for many indi- 
viduals and several families of dual-purpose type. 



26 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Years ago, various groups of men in different localities under 
different conditions and with different sorts of unimproved cattle 
took up beef production, or dairying, or a combination of the 
two. In this way originated the various breeds of the three 
types of cattle as we know them today. Competition does not 
narrow each t5rpe down to a single best breed, because no one 
breed is best under all conditions of soil, climate, and food supply. 

As compared to other kinds of farm live stock, cattle have 
a special advantage in their ability to utilize coarse roughage 
such as coarse hay, corn stalks, and silage, and the coarser pas- 
tures of ranker growth. No other farm animal will utilize so 
much of what would otherwise be waste. • 

Definition of Cattle Terms. 

Bull. — Breeding male, any age. 

Cow. — Mature female. 

Heifer. — A female under three years old, and usually one 
that has not produced offspring. 

Calf. — Young animal, usually under one year old. 

Steer.- — Unsexed male, castrated when a calf. The best 
age to castrate calves is six to eight weeks old, although they 
may be castrated from a week to six months old. The longer 
castration is delayed the greater is the risk of loss from the 
operation and the greater the liability of coarseness developing 
in head, neck, and forequarters. 

Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far 
advanced toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident 
in head, neck, and forequarters. Well-developed masculine 
character constitutes coarseness in a market animal. 

Spayed heifer. — Unsexed heifer. Spaying is performed by 
making an incision in front of the left hip and removing the 
ovaries. The scar left after the operation is about the only 
sure method of identif3nng such heifers. 

Free-martin. — An imperfectly-sexed heifer born twin with 
a bull. They are infertile. All heifers born twin with bulls 
are not free-martins. 



CHAPTER I. 
BEEF TYPE. 

The following description applies particularly to the fat- 
tened steer. Special or additional features of tj^pe which should 
characterize the beef bull and the beef cow will receive attention 
later. It should be understood, however, that all good beef 
animals — steers, heifers, cows, and bulls — are similar in the 
essentials of beef type; therefore, the description given here 
applies in almost every respect to all classes of beef animals. 

General appearance. — When correct in form and fatness, 
the beef animal presents a massive, blocky appearance from 
every angle of view. As viewed from the side, the body is 
rectangular, very deep, and short from shoulder to hip. The 
body is very wide, and the legs are short and placed squarely 
under the body. Two dimensions of the beef animal should 
be great — width and depth; the third dimension, length, should 
be relatively small. There should be great smoothness of out- 
line everjrwhere, all the parts being uniformly developed and 
so blended as to form a symmetrical and balanced animal. The 
back is uniformly broad, the more width the better. From a 
side view, the top line and underline are straight and parallel. 
A fullness of outline is presented everywhere. 

An animal showing too much length of middle is referred 
to as "rangy," while animals standing high off the ground on 
long legs are termed "leggy." The head should be short and 
broad, and the neck short and thick. Such a head and neck 
are associated or correlated with the desired type of body. 
Rangy, leggy animals usually have long narrow heads and 
long thin necks. With only the heads and necks of a number 
of beef animals in view, the best animals may be picked out 
with reasonable certainty by the general proportions of the 
heads and necks. A straight-edge laid against the side of a 
beef animal should touch the shoulder and hindquarter and 
all points between them. 

The head should be of medium size, short, and broad, 
with a broad muzzle, indicating capacity for grazing and feeding. 
The nostrils should be large, indicating capacity for breathing 
and hence a good constitution. The face line, from a side view, 

27 



28 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



should be straight or show a slight inward curve or dish from 
eyes to muzzle. The head below the eyes should be as short 
as possible, the eyes themselves being wide apart, large, promi- 
nent, bright, and clear, and indicative of a quiet disposition. A 
quiet expression of the eyes means a quiet, contented feeder 
that will transform feed into flesh ;'a nervous, restless expression 
is evidence of an unsatisfactory feeder that will neither consume 
enough feed nor store up the energy of the feed consumed, but 
waste it in nervousness and too much moving about. The fore- 
head should be very wide. The jaws should be broad and well 
muscled. If horns are present they should not be coarse at 
their base, but rather fine and nicely shaped and proportioned, 



36- 




Fig. 1. Points of the Steer. 



1. 


Muzzle 


14. 


Shoulder vein 


2. 


Mouth 


15. 


Point of shoulder 


3. 


Nostril 


16. 


Top of shoulders 


4. 


Face 


17. 


Shoulder 


5. 


Eye 


18. 


Fore-rib 


6. 


Forehead 


19. 


Elbow 


7. 


Ear 


20. 


Arm 


[8. 


Poll 


21. 


Knee 


9. 


Tongue root 


22. 


Shank 


10. 


Brisket 


23. 


Foot 


11. 


Dewlap 


24. 


Fore flank 


12. 


Neck 


25. 


Crops 


13. 


Crest 


26. 


Back 



27. Ribs 

28. Paunch or belly. 

29. Loin 

30. Hip or hook 

31. Rump 

32. Tail-head 

33. Thigh 

34. Hock 

35. Tail 

36. Switch 

38. Cod 

39. Hind flank 

40. Dew claw 



tapering evenly to their tips. The ears should be of medium 
size, fine texture, and neatly attached to the head. The entire 
head should be clean-cut, all lines being sharply defined, giving 
a well-bred appearance, sometimes referred to as "character." 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



29 



The neck should be short, thick, and muscular. The throat 
should be neat and trim, while at the shoulders the neck should 
show depth and fullness. The line where the neck and shoulder 
join is called the "shoulder vein," and we like this part to be 
filled out plump and full. A long neck lacking in thickness is 
frequently found, and it is undesirable chiefly because it is 
associated with a rangy type of body. When the animal is 
standing in natural position, with the head up, the top line of 
the neck should be slightly arched and the poll of the head should 
be slightly higher than the top of the shoulders. 

The shoulders should be very smooth, blending perfectly 
with the rest of the body. This conformation is secured when 




32. Tail-head 

33. Thighs 



Fig. 2. Points of the Steer. 

34. Hocks 

35. Tail 

36. Switch 



37. Twist 

38. Cod 



the shoulder blade lies snugly against the ribs beneath, and is 
covered over with a uniformly thick layer of flesh. The top of 
the shoulders should not be sharp and fine, nor yet so wide that 
the tops of the shoulder blades are prominent and outstanding, 
but should be moderately wide and nicely rounded over with 
flesh. Rough, angular shoulders, unevenly covered, are among 
the most common defects of beef cattle. When the shoulders 
are not properly laid in, but are wide and open, the appearance 
of the animal is injured, the fleshing over the shoulder is not 



30 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

taken on properly, and, when slaughtered, the carcass lacks 
the smooth, tidy appearance so much desired. A prominent 
shoulder also causes the development behind it to appear in- 
sufficient. 

The brisket and chest are highly important. The former 
should carry forward prominent and wide, and be well fleshed, 
yet neat, presenting a full, well-developed, and trim appear- 
ance. The chest, which lies between the shoulders and imme- 
diately behind them, ought to be very wide and deep. Too 
much width and depth are never found. A full, deep chest 
with large heart-girth indicates a rugged sort of animal possessed 
of much constitutional vigor. The floor of the chest should 
be wide, as shown by the distance between the two fore legs, 
provided width at this point is not due merely to prominent, 
open shoulders which set the fore legs wide apart. The fore- 
rib, lying just behind the shoulder, should not be flat, but should 
arch boldly so that no flatness or depression exists immediately 
behind the shoulder. Many beef animals present a hollowness 
or flatness of fore-rib which detracts much from the desired 
smoothness of conformation, and reduces the chest capacity. 
Care should be taken to cee that the animal carries down deep 
and full at the front flanks just behind the elbows. The butcher 
cares nothing for a beef animal's constitution, but every intelli- 
gent feeder places great emphasis on the depth and width of 
chest, which indicate to him that the steer will be a good doer 
in the feed-lot. Briefly summing up all the points in the descrip- 
tion thus far, we may say that the forequarters should be smooth- 
ly laid, smoothly and thickly fleshed, and very wide and deep, 
showing nc lack of constitution anywhere. 

The front legs should be short and placed squarely under 
the animal. They should come straight down, and the toes 
should point straight ahead. For reasons already given, the 
fore legs should be set well apart. The arm should be wide 
and muscular at its attachment to the shoulder. Fineness of 
bone and smoothness of joints are evidences of quality, whereas 
rough, coarse animals have heavy joints and big shank bones. 

The back carries great weight, and it is desirable that it 
be straight and strong. When some people refer to the back 
they include the entire top of the animal from shoulders to tail. 
Others mean the top from shoulders to hips. The score card 
restricts the meaning of this term to that portion of the top 
lying between the shoulders and the last rib, which is some 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 31 

distance in front of the hip. In this description we shall use 
the word in the score-card sense. The back furnishes one of 
the high-priced cuts of beef, and always receives critical atten- 
tion in judging. It is important, first of all, that the back be 
very wide in order that it may carry the maximum amount 
of meat. Beef cattle are never criticized for too much width 
in this part. Width is secured when the ribs arch boldly from 
the spinal column; if the ribs are not arched, the back must 
necessarily be narrow. 

Fully as important as the width of back is the depth of 
flesh which covers this part. When touched with the fingers, 
great depth and mellowness should be found. No mere beauty 
of outline or stylishness of appearance can ever make up for 
lack of fleshing in a beef animal. The flesh must be there. 
Dimples or ties, rough spots, or uneven patches of fat detract 
from the value because the carcass of such an animal will be 
rough in appearance and uneven in its covering of flesh. If a 
wide back furnishes greater space for meat than does a narrow 
one, then length of back might be advised for the same reason. 
But a long back is not wanted because one of the outstanding 
features of correct beef type is compactness, by which is meant 
shortness from head to tail, and especially shortness from shoul- 
der to hip. We naturally expect the back to be short, because 
length there is associated with the undesirable rangy tjrpe of 
animal too often found. 

The ribs should not only be well sprung, but should also 
carry down with much depth to help make a roomy or capacious 
body. A wide, deep middle is essential to digestive capacity. 
Cattle have thirteen pairs of ribs. In beef cattle they should 
be placed close together along the sides, and the last pair should 
come as close to the hips as possible. This provides a frame- 
work upon which the fleshing can be smoothly laid. When 
there is much space between the ribs, a smooth fleshing is not 
often found, for then the position of the ribs will be marked by 
ridges and there will be hollows between them. When the dis- 
tance is great between the last rib and the hip, it is impossible 
to get that part filled out smoothly; instead there will be a large 
"hunger hollow" which detracts much from the appearance. 
Once more, therefore, the necessity for compactness (shortness) 
of middle is emphasized. 

The development along the side of the animal should be 
such that all points fill out plump and smooth to meet the same 



32 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



straight line from front to rear. The fleshing over the ribs 
should be thick, smooth, and even, and the hind flank should 
be well filled with flesh so that when the hand is placed under 
it and lifted, it is found to be thick, full, and heavy. If the 
front and hind flanks carry down properly, the underline will 
be straight, as it ought to be. 

At this point it is well to state that while the middle of a 
beef animal should be wide and deep, a distended condition of 
the paunch is not desirable. When this occurs, the animal is 




Fig. 3. Correct Type in the Fat Steer. 

Two-year-old Aberdeen-Angus steer, Victor, Grand Champion at the 
International Live Stock Show in 1911. Fed and exhibited by Iowa State 
College. Sold for ninety cents per pound. 



referred to as "paunchy." The lines of the middle, both at 
the sides and along the belly, should be straight and trim, giving 
a neat, tidy appearance. Given good arch and depth of rib, 
a steer may be straight and trim in his middle without sacrificing 
proper feeding capacity, and such animals suit the butcher 
much better than paunchy ones, because an excessive paunch 
means much waste when the animal is slaughtered. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 33 

The loin is that portion of the top lying between the rear 
edge of the back and the hips. It has no ribs below it, but 
consists of large muscles, affording the very choicest cuts of 
the entire carcass — the porterhouse and sirloin. The loin should 
be very wide and very thickly fleshed to afford as high develop- 
ment of this part as possible. The covering of flesh should also 
be smooth and firm. We like the loin to be thickly padded 
and plumped up with muscle having the proper degree of fatness. 
Such a loin may be described as a "live" loin — one that exhibits 
resiliency or springiness when handled. A loin that is flat and 
that handles soft and "dead" is deficient in lean meat and has 
too much fat. The loin-edge is sometimes rough and patchy, 
due to an uneven distribution of the fat, whereas it should be 
smooth and even. 

The hips should be laid in snugly, and nicely covered over 
with flesh. The eye should not be able to locate the hip of a 
well-fattened animal; only when the hands are used should the 
point of the hip be possible of location. This helps to give the 
smoothness desired in both the living animal and the carcass 
which it ultimately yields. Wide hips cannot be covered over 
with flesh, and the animal suffers a rough and ragged appear- 
ance. 

The rump is the top between hips and tail-head. It should 
be level so as to carry out the top line straight and square to 
the end of the body. Some animals droop in the rump, and 
some rise prominently; in each case the conformation is faulty. 
The rump should be as long as possible and as wide as the rest 
of the top. This permits a maximum fleshing and provides 
the most attractive form. The width should be carried as 
uniformly as possible from hips to end of rump. As the tail- 
head is approached, there is bound to be some rounding off, 
yet this does not mean that the end of the rump need be nar- 
row or peaked. Rather it should be wide and plumped out 
with flesh. Beef cattle very frequently exhibit roughness about 
the tail-head or at the end of the rump on each side of the tail, 
due to the accumulation of patches or gobs of fat. Smoothness 
here indicates better fleshing qualities. 

The thigh begins at the border of the rump and extends 
down the outside of the leg. It should be wide and plump 
from every angle of view, and come down with some bulge on 
the outside to where the thigh naturally narrows. The plump- 
ness and thickness should carry down as close to the hock as 



34 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

possible; viewed from the side, the thigh should be very wide, 
and when the animal is viewed from the rear there ought to 
be much thickness from side to side. 

The twist is the fleshing between the hind legs, just as the 
thigh includes the fleshing on the outside. It should be very- 
deep and full, filling in the space between the legs, and carrying 
down as far as possible toward the hocks. The thighs and 
twist furnish the third most valuable cut of the carcass and are 
worthy of careful examination in judging. 

The hocks and legs, by their position, indicate the capacity 
for fleshing in the twist and also on the thigh. If the hocks 
are straight and properly placed, showing no special tendency 




Fig. 4. A Steer with Excellent Lines. 

Aberdeen-Angus steer, Blackrock, Grand Champion at the International 
Live Stock Show in 1905. Fed and exhibited by Iowa State College. This 
steer has straight side lines and a trim middle. He is free from paunchiness. 

to come together, they will be associated usually with more 
heavily fleshed hindquarters than otherwise. It is important, 
therefore, that the hocks stand squarely under the animal. 
The shanks should carry straight down, and, as in front, they 
should be short and show refinement in bone. The joints of 
the leg should be clean-cut. 

The quality of the beef animal is shown in bone, skin, hair, 
and head. Quality, which is synonomous with refinement, is 
essential because it insures against coarseness of texture in all 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 35 

parts, especially the texture of the muscles. The head should 
be of medium size and should be clean-cut, presenting a sort 
of chiseled appearance. The heads of many animals do not 
exhibit that "finishing touch" which characterizes the head 
expressive of refinement. Heavy bone, large rough joints, and 
heavy horns show lack of quality. One of the best indications 
of quality is the hide, which should be found pliable, easily 
stretched, and only medium thick when rolled up in the hand. 
The hair should be soft and fine. 

Quality is again shown by the smoothness of the animal, 
both in frame and in fleshing. Coarse shoulders, rough hips, 
and rough, uneven flesh show lack of quality. Quality and 
good breeding are usually found together, and certainly the 
animal with quality is the most desirable type for the producer 
as well as for the consumer. Well-bred animals respond best 
when fed out for the market. Coarse, rough animals yield 
unattractive carcasses and inferior cuts of meat. 

Animals are sometimes found which possess too much 
quality. In such cases there is a delicacy of make-up; quality 
is purchased at the expense of constitution. Extreme quality 
is also purchased at the expense of size, for over-refined animals 
are usually undersized. The proper degree of quality represents 
the middle ground between two extremes, each of which is 
undesirable. This middle ground is hard to define; it may be 
said that all the quality is wanted which may be had without 
sacrifice of constitution and proper size. 

The fleshing of beef cattle is of the highest importance. 
The fact that the butcher's block is the ultimate end, and beef 
the ultimate product, must never be lost sight of by the breeder, 
feeder, or judge of beef cattle. All over the body, and more 
especially in the back, loin, and hindquarters, there should be 
found a uniformly deep covering of flesh. The flat of the hand 
pressed along the shoulder, back, or side should find a deep, 
mellow fleshing, without any patchiness or bare spots. When 
mature cattle are heavily fed they thicken in their flesh, and 
this increase in thickness is due to a mixing of fat among the 
muscle fibers, a storing of fat between the muscles, and a laying 
on of fat just beneath the skin. 

When studying the fleshing of an animal it is well to keep 
in mind that the fleshing is made up partly of lean meat and 
partly of fat. The lean meat or muscle which an animal carries 
is often called the "natural flesh." We want as much natural 



36 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

flesh as it is possible to obtain. When a steer is fat it is rather 
difficult to determine how much natural flesh he has. In order 
to estimate this it is necessary to examine the development 
of flesh in those parts which take on very little fat, as for example 
the thighs, arm, and neck. Width in the crops is another good 
indication of heavy muscling. 

The proportion of muscle in the make-up of an animal is 
evident at birth (See Fig. 13), and feeding will not increase it 
beyond a very narrow limit. Henry and Morrison of the Wis- 
consin Station* discuss this point as follows: "Since the lean- 
meat tissues of the body are composed mostly of muscular 
fibers, any gain in these tissues can be caused solely by an in- 
crease in the number or by the thickening of these fibers. The 
fibers increase in number by dividing lengthwise, which process 
occurs with farm animals only while young and growing. Indeed, 
recent investigations show that with some animals all increase 
in the number of muscular fibers occurs before birth, the muscles 
of the new born young containing as many as those of the mature 
animal. The fibers of the muscles can thicken to only a limited 
extent, and hence the muscular tissues, or lean meat, of the 
mature animal cannot be increased beyond a relatively narrow 
limit, compared with the great storage of fat which may occur." 

A starving animal draws upon its muscular tissue to support 
life, and will rapidly repair its tissues upon a return to favorable 
conditions, but from the standpoint of farm and feed-lot con- 
ditions this fact does not enter into consideration and therefore 
does not alter the statements which are here made. The only 
factors which the feeder has under his control are growth and 
fatness. If the animal is mature, feeding is almost exclusively 
a fattening process; if the animal is not mature, fattening is 
accompanied by growth in bone and muscle. Practically speak- 
ing, we can no more increase the proportionate amount of muscle 
by feeding than we can add quality, or a better head, or a 
straighter top line. All these are breeding problems — not 
feeding problems. Feeding will fatten a steer, increase his 
weight, and improve his form and appearance, but it has little 
or no effect upon the proportion of natural flesh in his make-up. 
The degree of fatness shown by a steer is referred to as his "con- 
dition," and this feature will now be discussed. 



* Feeds and Feeding, p. 75. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 37 

Condition. — In comparison with dairy cattle, one of the 
most distinctive features of beef cattle is their ability to fatten 
easily and to deposit the fat in and around the muscles, there- 
by making the meat tender and juicy. As pointed out above, 
the feeding of beef cattle is largely a fattening process. The 
practical feeder knows, however, that it is not profitable to 
feed an animal up to his limit of fatness, because the last gains 
a steer makes are most costly, and such animals do not suit 
the consumer of beef as well as a steer fattened in moderation. 
Thin cattle are characterized by a very firm fleshing, so that 
when the finger-tips are pressed on the back and ribs the flesh 
is found to be hard and unyielding. When such cattle are 




Fig. 5. A Feed-Lot Model. 

Prince Rock, a grade Aberdeen-Angus steer, fed and owned by Iowa 
State College. Note the extreme depth of chest and middle in this steer, 
giving him a strong constitution and great feeding capacity. His short legs 
and blocky body indicate large gains on feed and quick maturity. 

properly fattened a decided change takes place; the flesh now 
has a mellow, yet firm and springy feel, and is no longer hard 
and unyielding. This firm, springy, and mellow condition in- 
dicates that the steer is properly fattened from a market stand- 
point. When feeding for show purposes, the fattening proceeds 
further, and, if continued to excess, the fleshing becomes soft 
and blubbery. To the fingers, such an animal seems incased 
in blubber, and when the animal is slaughtered this is indeed 
found to be true. 



38 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The best way to determine the state of fatness of an animal 
is to use the hands in the manner mentioned above. This can 
be done rapidly, yet thoroughly, by a vigorous handling along 
the top and down over the ribs and shoulders. Other means of 
determining the condition consist of examinations of the cod, 
hind flank, and tongue-root. At these points the fat tends to 
accumulate extensively, and they are, therefore, good indices 
of condition. After castration, the scrotum with its content 
of fat is called the cod. Thin steers show very little fullness 
of cod, while fat ones have the cod completely filled with fat. 
Thin animals also exhibit a very light hind flank. At the begin- 
ning there may be little more than a fold of skin; when fat, this 
part fills out remarkably full and heavy. By placing the flat of 
the hand beneath it and lifting, the quantity of fat in the flank 
is easily determined. When a fat steer walks, there is a char- 
acteristic roll or swell to the flank as the hind leg swings forward. 
This is not noticeable in a thin animal. The thickness of the 
tongue-root may be determined by grasping the part with the 
thumb and fingers. 

Some individuals fatten smoothly, with no special ten- 
dency to bunch the fat in patches or rolls at certain points, 
while others become "roily," or "patchy," in spite of all the 
feeder's skill. Patches and rolls are most often found about 
the tail-head and end of the rump, along the ribs, and at the 
edge of the loin. The occurrence of these is highly undesirable; 
they indicate an improper distribution of fat, give the animal 
a rough appearance, and, when the animal is slaughtered, the 
carcass is discounted, for then the bunches of fat are very evident 
and the appearance is spoiled. The fatter the steer becomes, 
the greater is the tendency toward patchiness, yet many animals 
begin to exhibit this defect before they are really ripe and ready 
for market. 

Style has actual market value in a fat steer. A stylish 
steer is one that stands squarely on his feet, with his back level, 
head well up, and eyes and ears .attentive to what is going on 
about him. This does not mean a nervous animal, but a wide- 
awake one, full of hfe, and seemingly interested in the things 
about him. When he walks, he does it easily and without 
awkwardness. Other things being equal, such a steer will 
attract buyers much more quickly than an animal that slouches 
while standing, showing a pronounced dip in the back, and 
having an awkward stride when in motion. These two animals 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 39 

may dress out equally high, and yield equally valuable carcasses; 
the difference is that the first steer forces his good points to the 
attention of the buyer and shows for all he is worth, while in 
the case of the second steer, the buyer is left to discover the 
animal's good points without any assistance from the animal. 
Cattle with style sell more readily and at slightly higher prices 
than cattle without style. 

Size and weight vary according to age, sex, breed, and fat- 
ness. Disregarding breed differences, for this factor need not 
be considered here, the following figures represent fair standards 
of weight at different ages for well-fattened steers: 

At birth 70 pounds 

6 months 450 pounds 

12 months 850 pounds 

18 months 1100 pounds 

24 months 1300 pounds 

30 months 1475 pounds 

36 months 1600 pounds 

Age from the teeth.— The ages of cattle may be determined 
with a fair degree of accuracy by an examination of the teeth. 
There are eight incisors in the lower jaw of mature cattle. There 
are no incisors in the upper jaw, but a tough fibrous pad instead, 
amply suited to the grazing habits of cattle. The dentition at 
various ages is as follows: 

12 months. All calf teeth in place. 

15 months. Center permanent incisors appear. 

18 months. Center permanent incisors in wear. 

24 months. First intermediates up. 

30 months. Six broad incisors. 

36 months. Six broad incisors in wear. 

39 months. Corners up. 

42 months. Eight broad incisors in wear. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE BEEF CARCASS. 

Buyers of fat cattle at the large market centers make their 
bids according to their estimates of the kind of carcasses the 
animals will yield. These estimates are made with considerable 
accuracy because the buyers have made a study of carcasses 
and the cuts which they yield. A similar knowledge of meats 
is essential to the beef producer in order that he may- learn to 
judge and value beef cattle correctly. 




Fig. 6. Knocking Cattle. 

Slaughtering. — Upon reaching the packing house, the cat- 
tle are driven into knocking pens where they are dealt a sledge- 
hammer blow by the "knocker" who stands on a platform about 
even with the head of the animal. They are then rolled on the 
dressing floor, where a shackle is placed about the hind leg. The 
carcass is raised and bled, and the head removed. Again floored, 
the feet are removed at knees and hocks, and the hide is stripped. 
The carcass is then placed on a spreader, known as a "beef tree," 
where it is disemboweled, the hide removed entirely, and the 
back split. An endless chain then conveys the sides of beef 
through a set of washers to the poolers. The time required for 

40 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 41 

dressing a carcass is less than 40 minutes. The beef remains 
in the coolers from one to two weeks before it is ready for the 
market, the temperature being kept at about 38 degrees Fahren- 
heit. Prime meats require three to four weeks ageing in a 
refrigerator to arrive at their best. 

The oflfal. — The feet, head, hide, internal organs, loose fat, 
blood, and contents of stomach and intestines are collectively 
called the offal or waste of the steer, so called because formerly, 
with the exception of the tongue, hide, and tallow, this offal 
was thrown away. Today all of it is valuable for manufactur- 
ing into various by-products. (See Chapter III.) 

The dressing percentage. — By comparing the weight of 
the chilled carcass with the live weight of the animal, the per- 
centage of carcass, or what is called the dressing percentage, 
is determined. This is a very important point in determining 
the market price of a steer, and the buyer always estimates 
the dressing percentage when bidding on a load of cattle. For 
instance, suppose we have a steer of 1,200 pounds weight on foot. 
When dressed, the carcass weighs say 720 pounds. The dressing 
percentage would then be 60 per cent. Now suppose we have 
two loads of 25 steers each. The average live weight of the 
steers in each load is 1,200 pounds. When slaughtered one load 
dresses 60 per cent., and the other 57 J^ per cent. Each load 
had a total live weight of 30,000 pounds. When dressed, one 
load yields 2^^ per cent, higher than the other, a difference of 
750 pounds of carcass — a difference exceeding the weight of a 
single carcass. The total dressed weight of the 25 steers in the 
best load was 18,000 pounds; 26 steers of the lower dressing kind 
would not yield this weight of carcasses by 60 pounds. We will 
suppose each lot of carcasses brought a wholesale price of $20 
per cwt. Then 750 pounds of carcass amounts to $150, which 
is the difference in the income from the sale of the two lots of 
carcasses. This amounts to $6 per head in favor of the high 
dressers. In handling thousands of animals, as do the large 
packing firms, the question of dressing percentage is a very 
important one. The range in the dressing percentages of cattle 
is from 35 to 70 per cent. 

The chief factors determining the dressing percentage of 
a steer, in the order of their importance are: (1) fatness, (2) 
paunchiness, and (3) quality of bone and hide. Aged dairy 
cows which have outlived their usefulness as milk producers 
are sent to market; they are very paunchy and very thin, and 



42 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

dress around 45 per cent. Well-bred steers, well fattened and 
with straight lines, that is, free from paunchiness, dress out 62 
to 65 per cent. The highest record known to the writer, where 
the steer was dressed in the usual manner, is 69.9 per cent. In 
determining the dressing percentage, the refinement of head, 
bone, and hide is of less importance as a rule than paunchiness 
or fatness, although in some animals the weight of hide is a con- 
siderable item. 

Commission men who sell cattle on the big markets are 
always careful that the cattle consigned to them get plenty of 
feed and water before they are offered for sale. This is called 
the "fill," and it is important because it has a quieting effect on 
the cattle, corrects the gaunt appearance caused by shipping, 
and adds weight to the animal. The buyer estimates the fill 
in various ways, particularly by the degree of paunchiness. 
Hence the fill does not constitute a fourth factor of the dressing 
percentage, but is included under paunchiness. On hot days 
when cattle take a heavy fill of water, buyers stay off the market 
as long as possible. 

The census of this country has provided average live and 
dressed weights of meat animals killed in the wholesale slaughter- 
ing and meat-packing industry, and these averages are derived 
from an immense number of animals. The average live weight 
of cattle was 1069 pounds in 1899, 1047 pounds in 1904, 1019 
pounds in 1909, and 989 pounds in 1914. The average dressed 
weight was 583 pounds in 1899, 569 pounds for 1904, 543 
pounds for 1909, and 530 pounds for 1914. The average dress- 
ing percentage was, therefore, 54.5 in 1899, 54.3 in 1904, 53.3 
in 1909, and 53.6 in 1914. The average live weight of calves 
for these four years was 141, 167, 168, and 167 pounds. The 
average dressed weight was 90, 103, 105, and 102 pounds. The 
average dressing percentage was 63.8, 61.7, 62.5, and 61.1 per 
cent, respectively. Calves dress a higher percentage than cattle 
because the hide is left on the veal carcass to preserve the color 
and moisture of the flesh, which dries out and turns dark much 
more. rapidly than beef when exposed to the air. 

The wholesale cuts. — When the carcass has been sufficiently 
ripened in the cooler, it is ready for cutting up into the whole- 
sale cuts. The full side of beef, half the carcass, has the appear- 
ance shown in the following diagram. The wholesale cuts are 
indicated by the dotted lines. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 43 

The first step in cutting up a side of beef is to "quarter" 
or "rib" it, which means to separate the side into forequarter 
and hindquarter. Sides are usually quartered or ribbed between 
the 12th and 13th ribs, leaving one rib on the hindquarter. 
Such a hindquarter is called a "regular hindquarter," and it 
contains from 47 to 49 per cent, of the weight of the side, and 
the forequarter contains from 51 to 53 per cent., the averages 
being about 48 per cent, hinds and 52 per cent, fores. Hinds 
are quoted about 25 per cent, higher than fores in cold months, 
and up to 40 per cent, higher in summer. This variation is due 
to the large amount of boiling and stewing pieces in the fores, 
which meats are in greater demand in winter. 

The hindquarter is divided into four wholesale cuts — the 
loin, round, flank, and kidney. The kidney is not shown in 
the accompanying diagram, as it lies under the loin. 



Fig. 7. Wholesale Cuts of Beef. 

1. Chuck; 2, shank; 3, brisket; 4, rib; 5, navel; 6, loin; 7, flank; 8, round; 
3 and 5, plate; 6, 7, and 8, hindquarter. 

The forequarter yields five wholesale cuts — the rib, chuck, 
navel, brisket, and shank. The navel and brisket are usually 
not divided, but are sold as one cut called the plate. 

The loin is separated from the round at the hip joint, which 
is a considerable distance back of the hip. Thus much of the 
rump is converted into loin when the carcass comes under the 
knife of the butcher. The shank is sawed off just below the 
shoulder joint. The plate is taken off on a line extending from 
about the middle of the twelfth rib through the point at which 
the shank is removed. The rib an'd chuck are separated between 
the fifth and sixth ribs. This gives five ribs to the chuck and 
seven to the rib. 



44 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



A 720-pound carcass will yield a 360-pound side. When 
the side is cut up, the weights of the various wholesale cuts, 
their wholesale prices per pound, and their total values are as 
given in the following table, the figures for weights representing 
averages for good steer carcasses. Prices are given for No. 1, 
No. 2, and No. 3 grades. 



Wholesale 


Wts. 

in 

lbs. 


Wts. 

in 

per 

cent. 


Price per lb., cents 


Total value of cuts 


cuts 


No. 1 


No. 2 


No. 3 


No. 1 


No. 2 


No. 3 


Round .... 

Loin 

Flank 

Rib 

Plate 

Chuck. . .. 

Shank 

Kidney .... 


80 
65 
18 
35 
50 
90 
11 
11 


22 

18 

5 

10 

14 

25 

3 

3 


25 
52 

17 
40 
181^ 
21 

113^ 

19 


24 
43 
16 
34 
17 
20 
11 
18 


17 
19 
15 
17 

12 

14^ 
10 
17 


$ 20.00 
33.80 

3.06 
14.00 

9.25 
18.90 

1.27 

2.09 


$19.20 
27.95 

2.88 
11.90 

8.50 
18.00 

1.21 

1.98 


$13.60 
12.35 
2.70 
5.95 
6.00 
13.05 
1.10 
1.87 


Total . . . 


360 


100 


28.4 


25.5 


15.7 


$102.37 


$91.62 


$56.62 



High-priced and low-priced cuts. — The average price for 
the entire No. 1 carcass is, then, 28.4 cents per pound. From 
the foregoing table it is seen that the loin, rib, and round con- 
stitute half of the carcass weight, but bring a little more than 
65 per cent, of the return from the sale of the wholesale cuts. 
The 180 pounds of loin, rib, and round have an average price 
of 37.7 cents per pound, while the remainder of the side, also 
weighing 180 pounds, brings an average of 19.2 cents. Hence 
the packer wants cattle as highly developed in back, loin, rump, 
and round as possible. Buyers of cattle for slaughter emphasize 
this point. They want cattle smoothly and heavily fleshed in 
all parts, and especially in the four parts mentioned. The sell- 
ing price of a load of cattle is greatly dependent on this feature. 

Variations in carcasses. — A study of the carcasses in any 
cooler brings out striking differences. Some are large, being 
from 1,500- to 1,600-pound animals; others are from younger 
beeves that weighed 800 to 1,100 pounds. Some are compact 
and wide, others are long and narrow. Some are well developed 
in the regions of high-priced cuts, while others are deficient in 
this respect. Some carry heavy fleshing, others are very poorly 
covered indeed. The layer of external fat is very thick in some, 
these being highly finished cattle fed on grain. Others show 
practically no external fat. These are from grass-fed cattle — 
poor pasture too, for a steer puts on some fat on grass if the 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



45 



pasture is good. Some show a nice intermixing of fat and lean, 
called ''marbling," while others exhibit this feature very slightly, 
or none at all. The lean meat of some carcasses has a pale red 
color; in others it is very dark. Some carry snow-white fat, 
others carry fat of a yellow color. Some beef is fine grained, 
and some is very coarse and fibrous. Some carcasses have soft 
bones, somewhat cartilaginous in character; others have hard 
flinty bones. Size of bones varies a great deal in different 
carcasses. 

To sum up these differences we may say that carcasses 
vary in respect to (1) size, (2) shape, (3) thickness of fleshing. 




Fig. 8. — Cuts of Beef Indicated in the Live Animal. 

(4) thickness of external fat, (5) marbling, (6) color of lean 
meat, (7) color of fat, (8) grain of meat, (9) flintiness of bones, 
and (10) size of bones. The butcher or packer is interested in 
all these things, for each is of considerable importance. The 
packer grades the wholesale cuts of beef, as they vary in these 
points, into No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades. No. 1 cuts bring 
the highest price, and between No. I's and No. 3's there is a 
marked difference. These three grades are all used on the 
butcher's block. Cuts from inferior carcasses not suitable for 
block use, are called strippers; these are manufactured into 
boneless cuts, barreled beef, and sausage. 



46 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

How the carcass is produced. — Before discussing the quali- 
fications of a good carcass, it will be profitable to consider briefly 
how an animal grows and builds up the parts of its body which 
eventually make up the carcass. The carcass consists of bone, 
muscle, connective tissue, and fat. At birth the calf weighs 
about 70 pounds. Its bones are soft and elastic, and its muscles 
are tender. It carries a certain degree of fatness, depending 
on how well it was nourished before it was born — in other words, 
on how well its mother was fed. Up to weaning time it subsists 
largely upon its mother's milk, which is primarily a bone and 
muscle builder, producing growth. 

When weaned, the future of the calf depends upon (1) 
ancestry, (2) feed, and (3) management. If its ancestors were 
dairy animals, it will never fatten properly nor make a valuable 
carcass. However, we are dealing with beef production and 
will assume the calf is from a good line of beef cattle. If given 
plenty of feed and good care, in other words every opportunity 
to develop quickly, the calf rapidly increases in size and its 
flesh expands and thickens. It also lays on fat. It is hard to 
fatten young animals because they tend to utilize their feed for 
growth rather than fat. Growth is increase in bone and muscle. 
However, with heavy feeding, cattle become fat before reaching 
maturity, and may be sent to market under 20 months of age 
weighing 800 to 1000 pounds. Such animals are called "baby 
beeves." 

Another way to handle the calf is to turn it out to pasture 
and perhaps help it along with a little grain if the pasture is 
short. In this case the object is to produce growth only, and 
the animal may then be flnished as a two-year-old. Under this 
plan the animal should be roughed through the winter with 
care, otherwise it will receive a setback. A third way to manage 
this calf would be to put it on pasture where it can get grass if 
there is any, and get thin if there isn't — so thin that it loses what 
we may call its baby flesh. In winter, under this system, the 
animal starves along as best it can, and the result is that it never 
makes a good beef, even though liberally fed at the finish. Once 
the baby fleshing is lost through setbacks received during develop- 
ment, the steer does not make as desirable a carcass as he would 
otherwise. 

As an animal increases in age, its bones become hard and 
flinty. The bones which bear the most strain become most 
flinty, these being the shank bones. In young cattle the tips 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 47 

of the spinous processes of the vertebrgp are soft and cartilag- 
inous. These "buttons," as they are called, are present up to 
the age of 18 months; thereafter they gradually ossify, and at 
about the fifth year the spines are hard to the tips. Similar 
changes take place in the cartilages on the breastbone before 
the third or fourth year. The breastbone, backbone, ribs, and 
pelvis gradually harden and whiten, especially after the age of 
1,8 months. When visiting a beef cooler, the age of the animals 
from which the carcasses came may be told approximately by 
the bones. With increase in age the muscles become tougher 
through use. The muscles which the animal uses most and 
which do the most work become the toughest in their make-up; 
these are the muscles of the neck and those used in locomotion, 
including the muscles of the thigh, shoulder, and arm. 

Wild animals store up fat in their bodies as a reserve upon 
which they rely in times when food is scanty. The bear, for 
instance, takes on lots of fat during summer and fall, which is 
resorbed and used to support life during hibernation in winter; 
he comes out in the spring in very thin condition. The storing 
of fat is a provision of nature. In the domestic animals which 
produce meat, man has encouraged this fat-storing tendency 
by methods of breeding and feeding. That great success has 
been achieved along this line is shown by the highly finished 
cattle, sheep, and hogs coming from the hands of the best stock- 
men. The natural place for the storing of fat is along the back, 
forming a layer of clear fat just beneath the skin. It is also 
stored about the internal organs, between the muscles, and 
within the muscles among the muscle fibers. This storing of 
fat among the muscle fibers gives the marbled appearance already 
referred to. Practically no fat is stored up in the muscles which 
do much work, hence we find the round steak coming from the 
thigh to be almost completely free from fat, being lean all the 
way across. The muscles of the loin and back, having little 
work to do, take on the marbling feature quite easily if the 
animal is well bred and properly handled. This largely explains 
why cuts from the loin and back are most tender, although in 
these muscles there is not the stimulus to the growth of connec- 
tive tissue such as is the case in working muscles, and this is 
undoubtedly another reason why the loin and back yield cuts 
of superior tenderness. 



48 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The following figures show the relative amounts of lean, 
fat, and bone in the cuts from a good carcass, as compared with 
those from an inferior carcass : 





Good Carcass 


Inferior Carcass 


Name of cut 


Lean 


Fat 


Bone 


Lean 


Fat 


Bone 


Hind shank 

Round 


per cent. 
28.1 
72.2 
44.7 
54.8 
46.3 
15.2 
53.9 
61.1 
62.8 
54.3 


per cent. 
13.5 
17.0 
32.9 
33.3 
53.2 
13.1 
34.3 
21.5 
21.4 
21.9 


per cent. 
57.8 

9.2 
22.2 
11.1 

0.4 
34.1 
11.5 
17.2 
15.1 
23.6 


per cent. 
43.8 
82.9 
47.4 
62.4 
49.3 
60.8 
62.8 
66.3 
69.9 
67.9 


per cent. 

5.0 

8.2 
30.1 
24.9 

9.2 

3.2 
21.5 
14.8 
15.4 
11.7 


per cent. 
50.0 

8.5 


Rump 

Loin 


21.1 
11.9 


Flank . 


7 


Shank 

Plate 


35.3 
14.7 


Rib 


18.0 


Chuck 


13.6 


Neck 


19.4 



A careful comparison of the figures for the good carcass 
and the inferior one shows that they have about the same per- 
centage of bone, but the inferior carcass shows a considerably 
lower percentage of fat and, therefore, a higher percentage of 
lean. 

As stated in the previous chapter, the feeding of mature 
cattle is essentially a fattening process. This is clearly shown 
by results at the Missouri Station,* where muscle fibers and fat 
cells extracted from steers at different periods during the fatten- 
ing process were examined and measured under the microscope 
and it was found that while there was very little or no increase 
in the diameter of the muscle fibers, the fat cells increased enor- 
mously both in number and size. 

Thus we understand why cattle differ a great deal in the 
kind of carcasses they yield, depending upon their inherited 
tendencies and upon their feed and care. The effects of inherited 
tendencies upon the carcass are discussed in more detail in 
Chapter IV. 

The demands of the butcher and ultimate consumer. — The 
questions which now come before us are: 1. What kinds of 
lean meat and fat does the butcher want? 2. How much lean 
meat does he want, and how much fat? 3. How does he want 
these two substances arranged with regard to each other? 



* Influence of Nutrition upon the Animal Form, paper by Dean H. J. 
Waters at Thirteenth Meeting of Society for Promotion of Agricultural 
Science. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 49 

These questions bring up the demands of consumers of 
meats, for the butcher is guided by what the consumer of beef 
wants and will pay for. You and I are consumers of meat, and 
what we like, or dislike, together with the size of our pocket- 
book, guides the butcher who buys our cattle. Now what do 
we want? We want meat that is (1) nutritious, (2) tender, 
(3) juicy, (4) of good flavor, (5) attractive in appearance, and 
(6) has a small amount of outside fat. Provided beef is well 
ripened in the cooler and well cooked, there is not much varia- 
tion in its nutritive or food value. The tenderness depends 
upon the work the muscle has done and upon the amount of 
marbling it carries. It is impossible to get too much marbling, 
the more the better. Meat free from fat shrivels and drys up 
when roasted, becoming dry and tough. Ageing or ripening 
in the cooler helps to make meat tender. Juiciness results from 
the presence of fat and manner of cooking. The flavor depends 
mostly upon fatness and upon proper ripening of the carcass. 
The cuts of beef which are most attractive in appearance are 
those with bright, rich, red lean, snow-white fat, and a high 
degree of marbling. The consumer desires a maximum of lean 
meat well marbled, and a minimum of bone and outside fat 
in the cuts of beef. 

All carcasses not suitable for side beef. — Carcass beef 
which is thick and fat enough so that the entire side can be 
sold over the butcher's block in retail cuts is known as "block 
beef" or "side beef," Carcasses that are not thick enough in 
flesh to be entirely utilized by the retailer are called "cutters." 
The loins and ribs of cutters may be sold over the block. "Can- 
ners" are the worst carcasses to be found, from which none of 
the regular wholesale cuts may be sold over the block, but which 
must be disposed of as boneless fresh meats and cured beef 
products. In this chapter our attention is confined to side 
beef and to a study of the qualifications of a good carcass. 

1. Weight of carcass. — The heaviest carcasses seldom 
exceed 1,050 pounds, and the minimum is about 250 pounds. 
Sufficient finish and quality are not often found in carcasses 
weighing less than 800 pounds. No definite line as to weight 
can be drawn between carcasses of beef and veal, because there 
are many factors determining the character of the fiesh. The 
greatest demand is for carcasses from 1,200- to 1,400-pound 
steers, and most of the cattle coming to market are of about 
these weights. Such carcasses yield retail cuts of a size to 



50 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



suit the average family. There is also a demand for heavy 
carcasses to supply hotels, restaurants, and dining cars, which 
use large cuts. 

2. Shape of carcass. — The ideal carcass of beef is com- 
pact and has good width in proportion to length, short shanks 
and neck, and full rounds, loins, and ribs. Large plates, hollow 
loins, prominent hips, thin chucks, or rangy, loosely coupled sides 
are especially discriminated against. 

3. Thickness of fleshing. — There is a clear distinction 
between thickness due to fatness and thickness due to mus- 
cular flesh. Only the knife can completely reveal the thickness 
of a side and the relative thickness of fat and lean; even expert 
dealers are often mistaken as to the actual thickness of flesh 
in an uncut side. 




Fig. 9. Beef Ribs, 

The rib cut on the left is too fat, the one on the right too lean, and the 
cut in the center is correctly fattened. Note that the amount of lean meat 
is practically the same in all three. 

4. Thickness of external fat. — This is referred to as the 
"finish." Perfect finish consists of a smooth covering of firm 
white fat over the entire carcass, with the greatest depth along 
the back, a white brittle "kidney" of medium size, and a lining 
of flaky fat on the inner surface of the ribs. The rounds and 
shanks are covered last in the process of fattening. Carcasses 
show variation in thickness of external fat, ranging all the way 
from zero to four inches. Beef fat is not palatable to most 
people. The average consumer does not want more than one- 
half or three-fourths of an inch of external fat, and if the carcass 
weighs 500 pounds or less, about one-fourth of an inch is sufficient. 
It is impossible to secure proper marbling unless a certain amount 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



51 



of fat is put on externally at the same time, but the necessary- 
marbling is usually secured when one-half or three-fourths of 
an inch of fat is laid on externally; after this point is reached, 
the fat is largely stored externally, between the muscles, and 
about the internal organs. A certain amount of outside fat is 
necessary in prime beef in order to insure proper ripening in the 
cooler, and also for proper roasting. In the lowest grade, such 
as canners, outside fat is entirely lacking and such carcasses will 
rot before they ripen. A carcass carrying soft, "gobby" fat 
sells at a discount. Grass-fed cattle often yield carcasses that 
are watery and flabby, with a marked lack of finish. Heifers 




Fig. 10. Well-Marbled Beef. 

Rib roast showing correct proportion of fat to lean, and a high degree 
of marbling. 



carry a higher percentage of fat in all cuts than do steers. This 
is one of the principal reasons why thev often sell at a discount 
in this country while in England they are not discriminated 
against because the Englishman likes fatter beef. 

Cattle fed to a complete finish, as are the beef cattle ex- 
hibited at the larger live-stock shows, carry a great excess of 
external fat — far too much to suit the average consumer. This 
excess of tallow adds practically nothing to the value of the 
carcass as food. In a way, the fat-stock shows set a wrong 
example for feeders to follow. Such a finish results from a long 



52 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

feeding period of 8 to 10 months, and in some cases even longer. 
A 3 to 6 months feeding period gives a carcass which suits the 
consumer better, and such a plan is undoubtedly more profitable 
to the feeder, because the first gains a steer makes are acquired 
much more cheaply than the last ones. This does not mean 
that the farmer should send thin cattle to market; it means there 
is a place to stop in the feeding of a bullock which results in 
greatest profit to the producer and best satisfaction to the con- 
sumer. A smooth and firmly finished steer is the sort this 
implies. As bearing on the matter of cost of gains, the Kansas 
Station* found the grain required for 100 pounds of gain with 
fattening steers for different periods to be as follows: 

Grain for Increase of 

100 lbs. gain feed required 

Up to 56 days 730 pounds of grain. 

Up to 84 days 807 pounds of grain. 10 per cent. 

Up to 112 days 840 pounds of grain. 15 per cent. 

Up to 140 days 901 pounds of grain. 23 per cent. 

Up to 168 days 927 pounds of grain. 27 per cent. 

Up to 182 days 1000 pounds of grain. 37 per cent. 

These figures indicate the heavy cost of thoroughly fat- 
tening a steer, and the importance of selling as early as possible. 

5. Marbling. — The highest quality of beef is that which 
contains the largest proportion of well-marbled lean. 

6. Color of lean meat. — The meat from grass-finished 
cattle is often dark in color. Grain feeding gives the best color — 
a bright, rich red. Dark color is due to the presence of much 
blood in the tissues. Anything which causes the blood to flow 
into the tissues in large quantities results in dark color. Exer- 
cise or excitement will bring about this condition, hence the 
dark-colored flesh of western range cattle, and of grass-fed cattle 
in general, is not due to the nature of the food, but to the amount 
of exercise made necessary in ranging about at pasture. Stags 
and bulls kill out dark because of their restlessness, and of heifers 
in heat the same is true. Dark carcasses break down (decom- 
pose) quicker than light-colored ones, and consumers object to 
the appearance, hence butchers have two good reasons for dis- 
liking a dark-colored carcass. 

7. Color of fat. — A clear white color of fat is desired. An 
unattractive yellow color is rather frequently met with. Some 
packers believe the yellow color is due to the kind of feed upon 



* Kan. Bui. 34. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 53 

which the animal was fattened. Cottonseed meal has been 
charged with this fault, but experimental work has shown that 
cottonseed meal does not produce yellow fat. Cattle of Jersey 
and Guernsey breeding usually kill very yellow. 

8. Grain of meat. — When the fresh-cut surface is viewed, 
it should show a smooth, fine-grained appearance, and should 
feel "velvety" to the touch. Meat with fine grain comes from 
the animal with quality, that is, one with fine hide, hair, and 
bone. Such an animal is finely textured throughout, and if 
well fed, so that the baby fleshing is preserved, a carcass with 
fine-grained flesh w^ill result. Some meats are very coarse 
indeed. 

9. Size of bones. — The bones should be as small as the 
weight of the carcass will allow. From the producer's stand- 
point, however, such carcasses do not always represent great- 
est profits, because extremely fine-boned cattle do not usually 
make the greatest gains on feed. 

10. Flintiness of bones. — As already shown, flintiness of 
the bones is an indication of age. The most desirable carcasses 
are those of young animals approaching maturity, the meat from 
old ones being tough, dark-colored, and lacking in marbling. 
The bones of cows and heifers, and of dairy-bred animals, turn 
hard and white earlier than those of steers, indicating quicker 
maturity. 

Grading carcasses. — As to the relative importance of the 
above factors in grading carcass beef, it may be said that finish 
(by which is meant the thickness and smoothness of outside fat) 
is particularly essential, with thickness of flesh, fineness of grain, 
color of lean and fat, fineness of bone, and shape of carcass of 
about equal importance. From what has been said we now 
understand why the loin and rib bring such high prices as com- 
pared to other parts of the carcass; it is because of their superior 
tenderness, marbling, and palatability, combined with attrac- 
tive appearance. The round brings a good price because it 
contains so much lean and so little bone and external fat. Other 
parts of the carcass are as nutritious as the loin, rib, and round, 
but are difficult to cook in such a way that they appeal to us as 
do the porterhouse, sirloin, and rib roast. But a carcass will 
yield only so much of these, hence the great variation in the 
price of the various wholesale cuts. It is perhaps well that 
there are cheap cuts of meat and cheap carcasses, for there is a 
great percentage of population not able to buy any other kind. 



54 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The packer does not want all beef to be of highest quality. He 
must take care of the second- and third-class trade as well as 
the fancy trade. But the producer of market cattle must aim 
to produce the highest quality of product, for this work requires 
skill, and skill always commands a higher reward than unskilled 
effort. Anybody can produce medium or inferior beef, and 
the price obtained is in proportion. 

Sex differences. — Steer carcasses are identified by the cod 
fat and generally by their full, fleshy rounds and loins, heavier, 
coarser bones, and short necks as compared with cows. They 
show more quality and finish than any other class, and are sold 
as carcass beef more extensively than any other class, except 
heifers. Heifer carcasses are distinguished by the udder, and 
usually they have smaller bones, more prominent hips, more 
angular rumps, less development of lean meat, and they average 
lighter in weight. The tendency in heifer beef is to carry the 
fat more extensively as kidney suet or gobby fat than do steers. 
They have flatter loins, flatter plates, and longer, thinner necks 
than steers. Carcasses of cows have the bag trimmed off as 
closely as possible. The form is angular, the neck long, the 
bones hard and white, and the majority lack thickness of flesh. 
Fat cow carcasses often carry an excess of kidney fat and bunches 
of fat on the back and rump. The flesh is seldom as well marbled 
as that of heifers or steers. Cow carcasses require more ageing 
or ripening to make the meat tender. Dressed bulls are easily 
recognized by the heavy neck and heavy shoulders, thick rounds, 
dark color, coarse-grained flesh, and absence of cod fat. They 
have rough shape and the bones show maturity. The coarse 
dark flesh has no marbling as a rule, and but few bulls are suit- 
able for dressed beef. They are used for sausage and the rounds 
are made into smoked beef hams. Many stags approach steers 
in form, quality, and finish; others resemble bufls. 

Carcass classes and grades. — All carcasses of cattle are 
classified and graded as follows: 

Classes Grades 

Steers Prime, choice, good, medium, common 

Heifers Prime, choice, good, medium, common 

Cows Choice, good, medium, common 

Bulls and stags Choice, good, medium, common 

Cutters Good, medium, common 

Canners Good, medium, common 

Veal calves Choice, good, medium, common 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 55 

The following wholesale prices* indicate the comparative 
values of those of the above classes which are suitable for block 
beef: 

steer carcasses 350 to 700 lbs 20J^ to 29M cents per lb. 

Heifer carcasses 400 to 600 lbs 22^ to 28^ cents per lb. 

Cow carcasses 250 to 500 lbs 18^ to 22 3^ cents per lb. 

Bull carcasses 400 to 600 lbs. and up 17^ to 17 3^ cents per lb. 

Veal carcasses 50 to 275 lbs., hides on 17^ to 28% cents per lb. 

Conclusions. — The study of the beef carcass therefore 
teaches : 

1. That well-bred cattle yield the best carcasses and 
bring the highest price. 

2. The market wants young, highly finished cattle. 

3. Steers yield the most desirable carcasses. 

4. The best results come from a method of management 
which offers no chance for a setback during growth and fat- 
tening. 

5. The breeder and feeder of beef cattle should secure as 
high development of loin, back, and hindquarter as possible. 

6. To bring a good price, cattle must dress high. 

7. To dress high, cattle must be free from paunchiness 
and must be fat. 

8. Broadly speaking, heredity regulates the lean meat, 
and man regulates the fat. 

9. The feeding of mature cattle is almost entirely a fat- 
tening process. 

10. Fatness is desirable because it adds weight, makes 
perfect ripening possible, gives tenderness and juiciness to the 
meat, and increases the dressing percentage. 

11. Cattle may be made too fat. 

12. Carcasses vary widely in weight, shape, thickness 
of fleshing, thickness of external fat, marbling, color of lean, 
color of fat, grain of meat, and size and hardness of bones. 

13. Ancestry, age, sex, feed, and care determine what 
sort of a carcass an animal will yield. 

14. Half of the carcass meets with strong demand and 
sells high, while the remainder sells low. 

15. There is demand for carcasses of all weights, but 
the strongest demand is for handy-weight carcasses from cattle 
weighing 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. 



* Wholesale price list of a leading Chicago packer, March, 1919. 



56 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

16. To secure the greatest returns, the feeder should send 
his cattle to market well done after a short feeding period, but 
not in an excessively fat condition resulting from long continued 
feeding. 



CHAPTER III. 
PACKING HOUSE BY-PRODUCTS FROM CATTLE. 

When slaughtered, the average steer yields over 40 per 
cent, of offal. In the early days of the packing industry the 
only by-products of a beef animal which received attention 
from packers were hide, tallow, and tongue. The remainder 
of the offal was either thrown away or sold for almost nothing. 
In some instances, packers even paid for the carting away of 
offal. In a short time glue works, fertilizer works, soap fac- 
tories, oil and tallow factories sprang up in the vicinity of 
the packing plants and grew to be large industries. Soon the 
packing plants went into the soap business for themselves, 
then into the glue business, the fertilizer business, and so on, 
until today packing house by-produts are numbered by the score 
from what was formerly mere waste. The modern packing 
house is living and depending for profits on what the packing 
industry of a quarter century ago was throwing away. The 
utilization of by-products is one of the chief reasons why pack- 
ers are able to compete so successfully with the local butchers 
of the country. Were it not for this conversion of waste ma- 
terial into saleable form, the cost of beef would be considerably 
higher than under existing conditions. 

The most important of all the by-products of the animal 
is the hide. Cattle hides have increased in value enormously 
in the last few years. In 1904, the average price for packer 
hides was $10.63 per cwt. In 1918, the average price was $24.77 
per cwt. The average cattle hide, which weighs about 75 pounds, 
therefore brought $18.57 in 1918. Next in value to the hide 
stand the fats derived from the abdominal region. The fats 
of the steer bear the general name of "tallow." Out of the 
finer and better of these fats, those which may be readily de- 
tached by cutting and pulling, is made oleomargarine or butterine. 
This food product appeared in 1866 and has since come into 
extensive use. The "butter fats" average in weight from 60 
to 75 pounds to the animal. One Chicago plant has a capacity 
of fifteen tons of oleomargarine a day, and in a year this concern 
has put out between eight and nine million pounds. The 
production of oleomargarine in the United States has increased 

57 



58 Types and Market CLASt-:ES cf Live Stock 

from about 50 million pounds in 1905, to 138 million pounds 
in 1910, 177 million pounds in 1916, 298 million pounds in 1917, 
and 377 million pounds in 1918. The marked increases in the 
last two years were due to the scarcity and high price of butter. 
The per capita consumption increased from a little over half a 
pound in 1905 to over 3>^ pounds in 1918. After all the oleo 
has been squeezed from beef suet, there comes another valuable 
by-product — stearin — largely used in the manufacture of chew- 
ing gum. 

Lean meat trimmings are made into sausage. Hair sells 
at a good figure for use in plastering and for other purposes. 
The horns, at one time considered a rubbish nuisance, are now 
sold from the packing house at $100 to $200 per ton. The same 
is true of hoofs, which bring $40 to $85 per ton. Hoofs and 
horns are manufactured into combs, knife, cane, and umbrella 
handles, buttons, and many other articles. Dried blood sells 
for blood meal at $90 per ton. Fibrous matter and scraps, 
after all the grease has been extracted, are ground to tankage 
and sold at $70 to $90 per ton. From all bone and cartilage 
the basic substance is extracted from which glue is made. Fully 
18 per cent, of dry bones is glue, the rest is ground to fertilizer, 
worth $35 per ton. One Chicago packing plant turns out 
8,000,000 pounds of glue annually. From the intestines are 
made sausage casings, brewer's hose, and snuff packages, while 
the bladder yields packages for putty, snuff, and lard. The 
tail furnishes hair for mattresses and upholstering, and the bone 
and meat are used for making ox-tail soup. Shank bones are 
worth from $65 to $85 per ton, and are cut into buttons, tooth- 
brush handles, and other ariicles. The same use is made of 
long thigh bones, worth $150 per ton. The tongue, cheek, 
tripe, brains, heart, liver, and sweetbreads are sold for food. 
Tripe is pickled stomachs. Sweetbreads are the thymus and 
pancreatic glands. The contents of the stomach are burned 
under packing house boilers and the ashes are used for fertilizer. 
Nothing is wasted but the water in the carcass. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



59 



A Chicago packer has computed from numerous tests the 
following percentages of yields from a steer: 



Pounds 

Live weight 1200 

Carcass 700 

Hide 75 

Head, feet, knees 45 

Butter fat 80 

Liver 12 

Heart 3 

Lungs 20 

Tongue 5 

Cheek meat 5 

Rough tallow and entrails 84 

Liquid blood 46 

Paunch and contents 106 

Lips and weasand meat 4 

Tail, bungs, and casings 15 



Per cent, of 
live weight 



58. 
6 
3 
6. 
1. 



0.25 

1.6 

0.41 

0.41 

7.0 

3.8 

8.8 

0.3 

1.2 

99.57 



The following table, giving the weights of the offal of steers, 
was compiled from slaughter tests conducted by the Iowa Ex- 
periment Station: 



Products of dress- 
ing steers 


Here- 
ford 


Here- 
ford 


Angus 


Angus 


Hol- 
stein 


Hol- 
stein 


Jersey 


Jersey 


Hide 

Caul fat 

Paunch fat 

Intestine fat 

Heart and lung fat 

Tongue 

Tongue trimmings. 

Head 

Feet 

Tripe 

Heart 

Lungs and wind- 
pipe 

Liver 

Paunch and con- 
tents 

Intestines and con- 
tents . . 


Lbs. 

90. 

24. 

24. 

28. 

11. 

4. 

4. 
28. 
16. 
22.5 

3.5 

6. 
13. 

151. 

78.5 
792. 


Lbs. 
102.5 
23.5 
26. 
22. 

7.5 

4. 

5 
25. 
17. 
17. 

6. 

8. 
18. 

132. 

66. 

777. 


Lbs. 

80. 

23. 

11. 

19. 

6. 

2. 

1.5 
25.5 
19. 
16. 

2 5 

6.5 
10. 

115.5 

54. 
812. 


Lbs. 

62.5 

22.5 

18. 

21.5 

8. 

3.5 

2.5 
20.5 
10.5 
20. 

3. 

7.5 
12. 

101.5 

52. 
680. 


Lbs. 

8a. 

14. 

12.5 

17.5 
7.5 
4.5 
•2.5 

25. 

17. 

19. 
3 5 

11. 
11.5 

133. 

50.5 
773. 


Lbs. 

61. 

11.5 

10. 

15. 

3. 

3.5 

2.5 
23.5 
15. 
16. 

1.5 

8.5 
11. 

125. 

63.5 
602. 


Lbs. 

66. 

25. 

20. 

53.5 

18. 

4. 

3.5 
24.5 

8.5 
16. 

4.5 

10. 
11. 

129.5 

76. 
592. 


Lbs. 

77. 

41.5 

21.5 

36. 

11.5 

4. 

3.5 
28. 
15. 
11. 

4. 

10. 
15.5 

133. 

79.5 


Beef 


636. 


Total 


1295.5 


1256.5 


1203.5 


1045.5 


1185.0 


972.5 


1062.0 


1127.0 


Live weight . . . 


1338. 


1320. 


1324. 


1142. 


1316. 


1090. 


1100. 


1182. 


Difference, in- 
cluding blood 
and shrink .... 


42.5 


63.5 


120.5 


96.5 


131. 


117.5 


138. 


55. 



60 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

A carload containing eighteen prime and uniform Aberdeen- 
Angus steers, bred and fed by the owner in Henry County, 
Illinois, were sold at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, August 
26, 1914.* They were reshipped to New York City on the 
same date, where they were slaughtered August 30, 1914. They 
had been calved in the spring of 1912, suckled their dams on 
pasture until weaning time, and received grain and hay through 
the following winter. The next summer they ran on pasture 
and were then fed clover and alfalfa hay until January 15, 1914. 
One-half corn ration was fed the steers until March 1, when a 
full feed of corn with alfalfa hay was given in the dry lot until 
marketing. 

It is of interest to know the story of these steers in detail 
as they passed through the market and through the hands of 
the packer, and to know the weights and values of the numerous 
products secured from their slaughter. The following table, 
giving the figures for a single steer representing an average of 
the 18 head, tells the story: 

Marketing. 

Live weight at Chicago, pounds 1483 

Selling price per cwt $10.65 

Price per head 157. 94 

Marketing expenses 

Freight and terminal switching $1. 86 

Yardage 25 

Feed and insurance . . 08 

Commission 66 



$2.85 
Proceeds to producer $155. 09 

Slaughtering and Wholesaling. 

Cost of live steer to packer $157 . 94 

Freight, bedding, and feed to New York City . . 4.50 

Gross cost of steer at New York $162 .44 

Live weight at New York, pounds. .. 1367 

Shrinkage in shipment, Chicago to New York, pounds 116 

Shrinkage in shipment, Chicago to New York, percentage. . . 7.8 

Chilled carcass weight, pounds 899 . 4 

Dressing percentage 65. 8 

Proceeds to Packer. 

Dressed beef, 899.4 lbs., average 16.86c $151.64 

Hide, 88.8 lbs., average 15.82c 14.06 

Oleo fat, 101.1 lbs., average 8.05c. 8.13 

Offal, as per following items 5.60 

* Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. Report 113, Meat Situation in the 
United States, by Hall, Simpson, and Doty. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 61 

Offal Wt. in lbs. Price Value 

Liver 12.47 12c per lb. $1.50 

Heart 4.28 6c per lb. .26 

Tail 10c each . 10 

Tongue 10.50 10c per lb. 1.05 

Brains 8c each . 08 

Sweetbreads .39 30c per lb. .12 

Melts 6c each . 06 

Lungs 5c per set . 05 

Raw tripe 22.00 IJ^cperlb. .33 

Switch 3c each . 03 

Cheek meat 5.33 93^c per lb. .51 

Head meat 1.17 83^c per lb. .10 

Ox lips . 51 5c per lb. . 03 

Skull bones 13.00 $20 per ton .13 

Feet 19.11 $27 per ton .26 

Heart cap .43 33^c per lb. .02 

Blood, estimated 8.00 $40 per ton .16 

Tankage 4.00 $20 per ton .04 

Tallow 5.00 5i^cperlb. .28 

$5.11 
Less expense selling small oflFal, 

46 lbs., at 75c per cwt 35 

Green value edible offal $4.76 

Casings — 

Rounds, at 22c per set $ .22 

Middles, at 72c per set 72 

Bungs, at 22c per set 22 

Weasands, at 6c per set 06 

Bladder, at 3 He per set 04 

$1.26 

Less expense, 42c per set 42 

Green value casings $ .84 

Total value of offal $5.60 

Total proceeds to packer $179 .43 

Gross margin to packer $16. 99 

Retailing. 

Cost of beef to retailer $151 .64 

Proceeds of beef at retail 172 . 76 

Gross margin to retailer $ 21 . 12 

It would seem that the packer is now doing his share in 
supplying the people with good meat at a fair price. There 
can be no further expansion in the line of getting more product 
out of the animal, the limit in that direction having been reached. 
Further improvement in the quality and cheapening of the 
price of beef rests largely with the grower or producer of live 
stock. Much may be done on the production side of the business 
to bring about these results. More feed must be grown per acre, 



62 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

feeding must be done more economically, and better animals 
must be bred and fed for the market in order that greater returns 
may be secured for the feed consumed. The scrub animal 
must be eliminated through the multiplication in numbers and 
extension of territory of the improved breeds of cattle. Thus 
more good purebred sires will be made available for grading up 
the common cattle of the country, and meats of better quality 
will be produced at lower cost. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE VALUE OF TYPE IN BEEF MAKING. 

In order to determine just what advantages are possessed 
by the beef-type steer as compared with dairy-type steers, 
some experiments have been carried out which have resulted 
in interesting findings. It has long been known that beef steers 
suit feeders and butchers better than steers of dairy breeding. 
It has been claimed that beef steers gain faster in proportion 




Fig. 11. Dairy-Type Steer. 

Jersey steer in the Iowa: experiment at end of feeding period. Note the 
slack crops and fore-rib, paunchiness, and lack of muscling in this steer. 

to feed consumed, that they fatten more readily, dress out 
higher, yield a more valuable carcass, and hence bring a higher 
price on the market. Experimental results have upheld some 
of these views and disproved others. 

In 1903, the Iowa Experiment Station* conducted a series 
of experiments dealing with the comparative merits of the two 
types for beef production. The object was to provide answers 



*Ia. Bui. 20. 



64 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

to the following questions: 1. Which type of steer makes the 
greater gains from pounds of feed consumed? 2. In the gains 
made, what differences exist between the two types as to dis- 
tribution of such gains over the body? 3. Which type of steer 
yields the greater profit to the feeder? 4. Which type shows 
the greater amount of offal? 5. Which type carries the higher 
percentage of tallow? 6. Which type carries the higher per- 
centage of valuable cuts? 7. In considering the various com- 
mercial cuts from the two types, what differences are to be 
found as regards: weight, thickness, covering of fat, marbling, 
color, and fineness of grain? 8. Is the low price paid for dairy- 
type steers due to prejudice, or to an actual inferiority in the 
value of the carcasses? 

Four beef-tjrpe steers and four dairy-type steers were put 
on feed January 1, 1903, and fed one year. The steers were on 
dry feed during the entire time, so that the exact amount of feed 
consumed by each lot might be known. Of the four beef steers, 
two were high-grade Herefords, and two, purebred Angus. 
The four dairy steers consisted of two Jerseys and two Holsteins. 
The ages at the beginning of the test were approximately as fol- 
ows: Average of Herefords, 16 months; of Angus, 18 months; 
of Holsteins, 24 months; and of Jerseys, 18 months. The feeds 
given were mixed hay, sorghum (during July and August), corn 
meal, bran, oil meal, and gluten feed. The conditions were 
alike for all the animals, and the feed was the same, but each 
animal was given all he would clean up regularly. At the end 
of the feeding test the cattle were bought in separate lots by 
the head buyer of a packing company of Des Moines, Iowa. 
The prices given were the market prices for such steers, Decem- 
ber 28, 1903. 

Following is a summary of the first part of the investiga- 
tion: 

Beef Dairy 

steers steers 

Average weight at beginning, lbs 685 574 

Average gain per steer, lbs 606 598 

Average value of feed consumed per steer $47.27 $45. 18 

Average cost of one pound of gain 7.81c 7.63c 

Percentage of dressed weight in slaughter test 61.7 57. 15 

Selling value, average price per pound 4. 888c 3. 752c 

f The dairy-type steers made their gains at a trifle less cost 
per pound than did the beef steers, indicating that their digestive 
and assimilative functions were slightly more vigorous in this 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 65 

instance. The gains made by the dairy steers were not dis- 
tributed on the body in such a way as to command the highest 
prices. The beef-type steers made a large proportion of their 
gains on the back, loin, and hindquarters, while the dairy-type 
steers showed but little increase in thickness on these parts. 

The beef-type steers were far more profitable to the feeder, 
for although both lots made approximately the same total gains, 
and although the average of the four dairy-type steers com- 
pared with the average of the four beef-type steers shows that 
the former made his 600 pounds of gain cheaper by $1.70 than 
did the latter, nevertheless this 600 pounds gain of the beef 
steer brought $7.18 more on the market. When $1.70 is de- 
ducted from $7.18, there is left $5.48 profit in favor of the beef 
animals, or a total of nearly $22 for the four head. Nor does 
this represent all the financial advantage of the beef-type steer, 
for the value of the initial weight (685 lbs.) of the beef steer was 
increased to a greater degree by feeding than was the value of 
the initial weight of the dairy-type steer. The report of the 
experiment furnishes no initial valuations, hence a complete 
accounting in this regard cannot be made. 

Following are given the weights of the cuts from the car- 
casses, expressed in percentages of the total carcass weight; 
also the wholesale and retail prices of these cuts: 

Weights in Wholoiale price Retail price 

percentages per lb. per lb. 

Beef Dairy Beef Dairy Beef Dairy 

Ribs 9.27 8.80 12.25 10.25 17.6 16. 

Chuck 25.97 26.78 5.5 5.1 10. 10. 

Brisket 5.92 5.72 4. 4. 6. 6. 

Plate 3.85 3.48 4. 4. 6. 6. 

Navel 3.00 2.72 4. 4. 6. 6. 

Shank meat 53 .66 5. 5. 6. 6. 

Shankbeef 2.60 3.04 2.5 2.5 3. 2.8 

Loin 17.55 17.09 14.9 12.5 ^^.17. 6 16 



P. 23 1 21. 

Round 17.74 18.88 7. 7. ' 'l2^ 12^ 

Rump... 5.19 4.78 7. 7. 10. 10. 

Flank steak 66 .58 10. 10. 12.5 12.5 

Flankbeef 2.16 1.67 5. 5. 6. 6. 

Codfat 1.98 1.56 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 

Suet 3.48 4.18 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 

NOTE: S, sirloin ; P, porterhouse. 

It will be observed that the carcasses were cut up into 
a greater number of parts than result from the regular method 
of catting explained in the previous chapter, but the differences 
in the cuts are not great enough to prevent a full understanding 
of the above table. 



66 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

On the basis of the above figures we are able to determine 
the relative profits of the beef- and dairy-type steers to the 
wholesaler or packer. This is shown as follows: 

Beef steers Dairy steers 

Cost of 4 live steers $242.52 $170.64 

Cost of killing at $1.50 per head 6. 00 6. 00 

Cost of carcasses and offal $248.52 $176.64 

Received from sale of hides, tallow, and tongue. . . 36. 13 30.27 

Cost of dressed beef $212.39 $146.37 

Cost of dressed beef per lb 0715 . 0583 

Actual wholesale returns when beef was sold 232. 61 179. 83 

Margin between cost and selling price of dressed 

beef 20.22 33.46 

The last item in the above table is interesting. It shows 
that there was $20.22 margin for the beef -type steers and $33.46 
for the dairy-type steers, or a difference of $13.24 in favor of 
the dairy-type cattle. If this difference in margins were applied 
to the live-weight price of the dairy-type steers, their price per 
cwt. would have been 28 cents higher; in other words the dairy- 
type steers would have brought 4 cents per pound, instead of 
3^ cents. 

At a meat demonstration in January, 1904, conducted by 
Mr. John Gosling, some further important differences were 
brought out between the cuts from the dairy- and beef-type 
carcasses. Mr. Gosling is recognized as one of the leading 
authorities on meats in this country. In grading the carcasses, 
he placed three of the beef -type carcasses as No. 1, and the 
other as No. 2. Two of the dairy- type carcasses were graded 
No. 2, and the other two as No. 3. The color of the flesh was 
fairly good in all eight of the carcasses, although in the Jersey 
carcasses it was somewhat dark. The external color (or color 
of the fat) was good in all except one — a Jersey — which killed 
very yellow. The other Jersey killed very white, although, as 
a rule, carcasses of Jerseys or grade Jerseys are very yellow. 
The spines in the backbone of the dairy-type carcasses were 
hard, indicating the early maturity of the dairy type. They 
were much more cartilaginous in the beef-type carcasses, although 
the ages were nearly the same. The fore-ribs from the dairy- 
type steers were light and lacking in marbling. The Holstein 
ribs lacked depth, and were very irregular and rough. The 
dairy- type steers carried more kidney fat or suet; this is a cheap 
product which increases the dressing percentage, but reduces 
the value of the carcass when excessive. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 67 

The answers to the questions asked at the beginning of 
the experiment are, therefore, as follows: 1. The gains from 
pounds of feed consumed are practically the same for both the 
beef and dairy types. 2. The beef- type steer uses his gains 
to slight advantage as compared with the dairy-type, placing 
a slightly greater percentage of his gains in the valuable cuts. 

3. The beef-type steer yields the greater profit to the feeder. 

4. The dairy-type steer shows the greater amount of offal. 

5. The dairy-type steer carries the higher percentage of tallow. 

6. As regards the ^percentage of valuable cuts, there is very little 
difference; if any, it is in favor of the beef- type steer. 7. The 
beef-tjrpe steer yields cuts that are heavier, thicker, usually 




Fig. 12. Dairy-Type Steer. 

Holstein steer in the Iowa experiment. His flat ribs, ridgy back, and 
angular appearance are characteristic of steers of dairy breeding. 

covered with whiter fat, nicer in marbling, and a little better 
in color of muscle. There is no apparent difference in fineness 
of grain. 8. The low price paid for dairy steers may be due 
partially to prejudice, and to the greater expense of carrying 
and selling the low-grade carcasses, but it is chiefly due to an 
actual inferiority in the carcasses. They are unsatisfactory to 
the consumer, because they do not furnish thick and well-marbled 
cuts; they are unsatisfa,ctory to the butcher, because they fur- 
nish low-grade carcasses which are difficult to dispose of; and 



68 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

they are decidedly unsatisfactory to the feeder, because they 
yield him little or no profit, and both breeder and feeder waste 
their time in producing such a type of steer for beef purposes. 

In an earlier experiment at the Iowa Station, James Wilson 
and C. F. Curtiss found the quantity of fat about the internal 
organs of fat steers of the various breeds to be as follows: 

Breed Average dressed Loose Per cent, of loose 

weight tallow tallow to beef 

Shorthorn 1,092 145 13 . 3 

Hereford 1,022 129 12.6 

Red Poll 990 125 12.6 

Galloway 1,088 147 13 . 5 

Angus 1,137 157 13.8 

Devon 815 123 15.0 

Swiss 1,017 119 11.7 

Holstein 862 155 17.9 

Jersey 880 166 18.8 

This table gives further evidence of the tendency of the 
dairy breeds to deposit proportionately more fat about the 
intestines, paunch, kidneys, and caul. Experiments at the 
Kansas Station substantiate the results of the Iowa investi- 
gations. (See also table on page 59.) 

Why the dairy steer lacks thick flesh. — The experimental 
results set forth above emphasize the lack of thickness in the 
cuts from the dairy steer. In other words, the dairy steer is 
decidedly lacking in muscular development. Mr. John Gosling 
has continually emphasized this point in his annual meat demon- 
strations at the Iowa State College. He has conclusively shown 
that there is a very marked difference in the amount of muscle 
or lean meat present at birth in calves of dairy ancestry as con- 
trasted with those of good beef breeding, and he has also shown 
that from a practical standpoint, at least, feeding does not 
increase the relative proportion of muscle in the make-up of an 
animal. His demonstration in January, 1918, included a beef 
calf and a dairy calf, less than a week old, which were not selected 
for veals, but were used to demonstrate the vast difference in 
the natural flesh or muscle present at birth in these two types 
of cattle. The accompanying illustrations show the difference. 
There was no visible fat on either of them, but the beef calf 
was thick, plump, and rounding, with muscles like the breast of 
a quail, while the dairy calf was flat and thin in all parts. The 
beef calf was thick in neck and arm, broad of back and loin, full 
in rump, bulging in thighs, and carried his beef to the hocks. 
The dairy calf was scrawny in his neck, ridgy along the spine, 
narrow and shabby over the rump, and light and tapering in 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 69 

his rounds. The evidence is unquestionable. Fat can be put 
on by feeding, but the muscle comes only by inheritance. The 
dairy calf is "born wrong" from a beef standpoint, and no known 
method of feeding and management can correct its deficiency. 

Professor W. A. Henry, of the Wisconsin Station, has writ- 
ten the following pointed statement* relative to the compara- 
tive merits of beef- type and dairy-type steers: 




Fig. 13. Carcasses of Beef and Dairy Calves. 

These calves were slaughtered when less than a week old. Neither 
carcass showed any degree of fat. Note the muscling in round, rump, loin, 
rib, shoulder, arm, and neck of the beef calf on the left as compared to the 
dairy calf on the right. 

"Beyond that which can be expressed in figures or stated 
percentagely lies that indefinable something described by the 
word 'quality' which enters into all objects of barter. No one 
can compare a bunch of well-fed beef-bred steers with one repre- 
senting the dairy breeds without being impressed by a difference 



* Feeds and Feeding, p. 443. 



70 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

not measured by the scales The matter at issue may- 
be illustrated by a condition in the fruit world: No orchardist 
will hold that the Baldwin apple tree necessarily grows faster 
than the seedling apple tree, or that it will make wood and fruit 
on less material from soil and air. Neither will he hold that 
Baldwin trees necessarily yield more barrels of fruit than seed- 
lings, nor that a given measure of Baldwin apples contains more 
juice or human food than the same measure of common seedling 




Fig. 14. Carcasses of Beef and Dairy Calves. 

Back view of carcasses shown in Fig. 13. Beef calf on left, dairy calf 
on right. Note the rounds, rumps, loins, backs, shoulders, and necks. The 
marked difference in the muscling inherited by these two calves is plainly 
evident. 

apples. Fruit growers do rightfully assert, however, that the 
market wants Baldwin apples and will pay more for them than 
for common seedling fruit, and that from this judgment of the 
market, be it reasonable or unreasonable, there is no appeal. 
Beef cattle have been bred for meat production — it would be 
passing strange if they did not excel for that purpose." 



CHAPTER V. 

AMERICAN CATTLE MARKETS. 

The largest live-stock markets of the United States are 
located in the central part of the country. With the West 
and Central West 6n the one hand as the great breeding and 
feeding ground, and with the East on the other as the chief 
region of consumption, it is logical that the large markets 
have a central location. Following are the fourteen largest 
cattle markets and their receipts of cattle, including calves, 
during 1918: 

1. Chicago 4,447,689 8. Sioux City 817,593 

2. Kansas City 3,319,511 9. Denver 728,268 

3. Omaha 1,993,366 10. Oklahoma City 690,109 

4. Fort Worth 1,665,009 11. Buffalo 667,671 

5. St. Louis 1,509,409 12. Pittsburg 522,683 

6. St. Paul 1,430,408 13. Indianapolis 504,190 

7. St. Joseph 869,888 14. Cincinnati 455,291 



Total 19,621,085 

The U. S. Bureau of Markets reports the total receipts of 
cattle and calves at 53 markets during 1918 at 24,955,111. The 
fourteen markets listed above received over 78 per cent, of this 
total. 

From the above figures we see that the Chicago market is 
the largest in the United States, in fact Chicago is the largest 
cattle market in the world. In 1918, Chicago received 3,789,922 
cattle and 657,767 calves, the largest year's receipts since 
the opening of the yards in 1865. Cattle weighing 300 pounds. 
or less per head are classed as calves. The 3,789,922 cattle 
received during 1918, if placed in a procession, allowing ten 
feet of space for each animal, would form a line 7100 miles long. 
Their total value was $463,038,180. Their average value per 
head was $122. Their average weight was 941 pounds. Their 
average price per cwt. was $13. The number of western range 
cattle received at Chicago in 1918 was 434,300, the largest on 
record. These cattle constituted about 11^^ per cent, of all 
cattle received. The total value of the calves was $14,400,162; 
their average value per head was a little less than $22; their 
average weight was 139 pounds; and their average price per cwt. 
was a little less than $16. 

71 



72 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The census of 1909 estimated that 13,611,422 cattle and 
6,515,976 calves were slaughtered in the United States in that 
year. It is estimated that about three-fifths of the beef cattle 
marketed in the United States pass through the large central 
markets, that about one-third are sold for local slaughter, and 
that about one-tenth are slaughtered on farms and ranges. 
Considering that the animais which are shipped to the central- 
ized markets generally are of heavier weights and of higher 
grades than stock slaughtered locally, it is apparent that prob- 
ably two-thirds or more of the beef consumed is the product of 
animals which pass through the large central markets. About 
two-fifths of the calves are slaughtered by the large packers, 
a little less than half are slaughtered locally, and about one^ 
sixth are slaughtered on farms and ranges. 

The great markets of the Middle West are points of focus 
of never-ending processions of beef animals moving from western 
ranges and cornbelt feed-lots. Upon reaching market, the cattle 
are either slaughtered at the great packing houses located at 
the stock yards, or are shipped out of market on the hoof. Both 
dressed carcasses and live animals are shipped to various cities 
and towns to fill the orders of retail butchers. For example, 
the Chicago packing houses slaughtered 2,800,051 cattle in 1918, 
and the remaining 989,871 head were shipped out alive. Of 
the latter number, 586,557 were shipped to various parts of 
the country for slaughter, and 403,314 were taken out for feeding. 

An investigation by the U. S. Office of Markets and Rural 
Organization in 1915, indicated that 42 per cent, of cattle are 
marketed in the fall, 19 per cent, in the winter, 21 per cent, in 
the spring, and 18 per cent, in the summer. Both the buying 
of stockers and feeders and the selling of fat stock are confined 
to a few months of the year. Movements of live stock are 
largely controlled by such factors as the limits of the grazing 
season, the maturity of crops for feeding, distribution of labor, 
etc., and it is not advisable that monthly shipments of live stock 
to market be absolutely equalized, yet it is at the same time true 
that a more even distribution is, within limits, desirable to 
both producer and consumer. 

Zone system of marketing at Chicago. — At Chicago, in 
1915, 42 per cent, of cattle were received on Mondays, 10 per 
cent, on Tuesdays, 33 per cent, on Wednesdays, 10 per cent, on 
Thursdays, 4 per cent, on Fridays, and less than 1 per cent, on 
Saturdays. A similar, though less marked, condition prevailed 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 73 

with respect to hogs and sheep. In order to more nearly equalize 
receipts, the zone system of marketing was applied to the Chicago 
Union Stock Yards on December 10, 1917, and has been con- 
tinued to the present time. This system was inaugurated by 
the U. S. Food Administration as a war measure. Under this 
plan a circle is drawn on the map so as to include Eastern Iowa, 
Illinois, and most of Wisconsin. The regulations provide that 
those who live within the circle may ship their stock so as to 
arrive on the Chicago market on Tuesday, Thursday, and Satur- 
day, and that those outside the line may ship so as to arrive at 
Chicago on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The stabilizing 
effects of this system are shown by the fact that, during 1918, 
30 per cent, of cattle were received at Chicago on Monday, 
23 per cent, on Tuesday, 14 per cent, on Wednesday, 19 per cent, 
on Thursday, 10 per cent, on Friday, and 4 per cent, on Satur- 
day. 

Early cattle markets. — A century ago cattle markets were 
small and largely local in character. The "West" at that time 
comprised what we now designate as the Middle West, embrac- 
ing Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and the live-stock 
business and the meat business of that time were far different 
propositions than today. There were no railroads, no live-stock 
cars, no refrigerator cars, no steamships, and no large live-stock 
markets. Every large town had its own stock yards or cattle 
market to which cattle were driven from the surrounding coun- 
try and sold to butchers. The cattle business and the meat 
business were local affairs of small dimensions depending upon 
the size of the town. In time, New York, Philadelphia, Boston, 
and Baltimore became rather large markets, and in some instances 
cattle were driven long distances to supply them. 

Early methods of transportation. — This was before the days 
of railroads, and even after the railroads came, very few live 
animals were carried until about 1860. Prior to 1850, it was 
the general practice to drive live stock to market on foot. At 
that time, in many parts of the country, pasturage was free 
along the routes, and the animals were driven by easy stages, 
reaching market without very much depreciation. George 
Renick, of Ohio, was perhaps the first man to find an outlet for 
cattle fattened in what was then "The West." He was one of 
the first settlers of the Scioto Valley, having come in with his 
brother, Felix, from Virginia, and selected large tracts of land 
near the present site of Chillicothe, Ohio. In 1805, against 



74 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

the advice of his neighbors, he successfully drove sixty-eight 
head of cattle from the Scioto to Baltimore, and disposed of 
them at a profit. This gave a great impetus to the western 
cattle business of that time, and afforded a means of marketing 
corn. In 1817, Felix Renick drove one hundred head of prime 
Shorthorn steers to Philadelphia, receiving $134 per head for 
them. He became the leading producer of high-class cattle in 
Ohio, and one of the most extensive breeders and feeders in the 
United States. R. R. Seymour, of Ohio, fed 100 to 700 annually, 
and in 1841 drove 840 head to Philadelphia. 

One route from Kentucky to New York City covered about 
800 miles and required over ten weeks to complete it. Another 
route from Lexington extended to Charleston, S. C, a distance 
of 550 to 600 miles. Drives to the eastern seaboard were made 
from as far west as Iowa, and even Texas cattle passed eastward 
in this manner. There is record of a drove of several hundred 
cattle from Texas passing through Pennsylvania, on the way to 
New York City, which had left Texas four months previously. 
Sheep were driven across country also, notably from Vermont 
to Virginia. Large numbers of hogs were driven to market, 
but they were a more active type than the modern fat hog. 
By 1860, few hogs were driven any considerable distance. Today 
we do not even drive hogs from the farm to the shipping point, 
but haul them in wagons. 

Development of large markets.— The large live-stock mar- 
kets grew up with the country. As long as the market was 
simply the scene of barter in live animals for local use, no large 
markets were developed. About 1830 pork-packing was begun, 
and this furnished the first impetus to the creation of large 
markets of more than mere local importance. Pork could be 
pickled, salted, and smoked, and the fat rendered into lard, 
and the products thus produced could be shipped to distant 
points. As these products met with good demand, pork- 
packing was the natural beginning of a vast meat-manufactur- 
ing business, tending to centralize the hog markets, and much 
increase them in size. So far as cattle were concerned, how- 
ever, the development was not parallel. Outside of an article 
known as barreled beef, which was put down in salt, packers 
had found no method of handling beef as they did hogs. Not 
until the era of the refrigerator car, beginning in 1875, were 
cattle of much interest to packers, and not until that time did 
the large cattle markets reach a maximum development. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 75 

The advent of railroads marked a decided turning point 
in the development of the li\e-stock industry and the live-stock 
markets. However, it was a long time after the hauling of 
live stock had been taken up by railroads before it was done 
efficiently. An account of one of the first shipments of cattle 
from Kentucky to New York City, made in 1852, shows how 
crude and expensive were the first attempts at transporting 
cattle by rail. One week was consumed in driving the cattle, 
one hundred in number, from near Lexington, Ky., to Cincinnati, 
where they were loaded in box cars and shipped to Cleveland. 
They were taken to Buffalo by boat, where they were given 
several days rest and then driven to Canandaigua, N. Y. They 
were at once hauled to Albany in immigrant wagons, rested two 
days in a feed-yard, and sent to New York by boat. The cost 
of the shipment from Kentucky to New York City was $14 
per head. 

The cattle markets of the United States migrated from 
east to west, following closely upon the settling up of the coun- 
try. It was at one time believed that Albany was to be the 
final gateway for western cattle. Next Buffalo, Pittsburg, and 
Cincinnati were in turn regarded as the future great market 
of the country; but eventually it became evident that Chicago, 
by virtue of location and railroad facilities, was to become and 
remain the largest cattle market in America. This fact was 
clearly established by 1870. 

Chicago's early cattle trade. — The history of Chicago as 
a cattle market extends back many years to the time when a 
few hundred animals were driven in to supply the garrison at 
old Fort Dearborn. It was not until the advent of railroads, 
however, that Chicago took prominence as a live-stock center. 
When railroad communication with the Atlantic seaboard was 
established and lines were built from Lake Michigan toward 
the Mississippi, a revolution was brought about. Half a dozen 
stock yards were located in various parts of the city, and when 
these became glutted, the cattle were grazed on the surround- 
ing prairie until a price could be realized. Mess pork and 
barreled beef were staple articles known to the trade under 
the appetizing names of "sow belly" and "salt horse." Dressed 
beef was then unknown to commerce, artificial refrigeration 
was not even speculated upon, the refrigerator car existed merely 
as an idea, if at all, and the canning of meats had not been at- 
tempted. Armour was not a prominent name at that time, 



76 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Swift had not yet discovered Chicago, and nearly every concern 
then engaged in the manufacture of meats has since gone out 
of business. 

Prior to 1870, the Chicago cattle business was almost ex- 
clusively a matter of buying, selling, and shipping live animals. 
Then there were no market papers to inform the producer of 
the state of the market, and no well-organized commission 
firms to attend to the disposal of his stock. The producer did 
most of his own selling. There was danger of finding the mar- 
ket glutted, or shipping facilities swamped. Since that time 
a trade mechanism and a trade demand have grown up, bring- 
ing a constant market and quick, sure sales for the cattleman. 
The loss by wear and tear in shipment from farm to market 
has been reduced to a minimum. 

In the early days it was all guesswork — guesswork as to 
how long it would take to reach the market, guesswork as to 
the freight charges, guesswork as to promptness in handling 
the stock by railroads, guesswork as to the condition of the 
market, guesswork as to the price the animals would bring. 
Luck usually counted for more in determining the profits than 
did skill in the preparation of cattle for market. 

Founding of the Union Stock Yards. — Prior to 1865, Chicago 
had several stock yards of minor importance and located in 
different sections of the city. The first was the old Bull's Head 
Stock Yards, opened in 1848, at the corner of Madison Street 
and Ogden Avenue. At this time Chicago had a population of 
only 20,000, but was growing rapidly. In 1865, John B. Sher- 
man organized the Union Stock Yard and Transit Company, 
which purchased 320 acres at 39th and Halsted streets and 
opened the present Union Stock Yards, thus laying the basis 
for a greater live-stock trade at Chicago. In 1876 the Union 
Stock Yards comprised 475 cattle yards, 675 covered hog and 
sheep pens, 375 chutes, 15 corn cribs, and 10 hay barns. The 
company owned and operated 24 miles of railway, had put down 
several miles of macadamized streets and alleys, and installed 
a drainage system. The market could then accommodate at 
one time 20,000 cattle, 100,000 hogs, 15,000 sheep, and 1000 
horses— in all, 136,000 animals. About one hundred com- 
mission firms were then doing business. 

The Union Stock Yards today.— The Union Stock Yard 
and Transit Company receives, unloads, yards, feeds, waters, 
weighs, and delivers or reships live stock, but neither buys. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



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78 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

sells, nor slaughters animals. It is a great transportation and 
marketing corporation, which connects all the twenty-six rail- 
way systems entering Chicago with the Union Stock Yards, 
and provides unloading platforms, chutes, pens, buildings, and 
all necessary facilities for doing an immense daily business in 
handling live animals, but takes no part in the transaction of 
the market. The Chicago yards now occupy an area of 500 
acres, 450 of which are paved. There are 25 miles of streets, 
and 300 miles of railway tracks. The number of pens is 13,000, 
of which 8,500 are double-decked and covered; there are 725 
chutes, 25,000 gates, 25 miles of watering troughs, and 450 
commission and other offices. The water system has a reser- 
voir holding 10,000,000 gallons, and pumps with a daily capacity 
of 8,000,000 gallons, of which 7,000,000 gallons are consumed 
on hot days. Separate accommodations are provided for each 
kind of stock; sheep and hogs are kept in sheds of two or more 
stories each, and cattle occupy open pens holding from one to 
several carloads. These yards would hold at one time 75,000 
cattle, 125,000 sheep, 300,000 hogs, and 6,000 horses and mules. 
It is estimated that 50,000 people earn a living at the stock yards 
and the packing plants, and that 250,000 of Chicago's population 
are more or less dependent on the live-stock industry. 

Since 1900, a yearly average of more than 15,000,000 ani- 
mals have found a cash market at Chicago. Since 1865, 
116,153,488 cattle, 9,832,996 calves, 328,293,317 hogs, 132,627,438 
sheep, and 3,536,796 horses havebeen handled, making agrand to- 
tal of 590,444,035 animals, the value of which was $12,498,228,223. 
Sixty per cent, of the cattle received at Chicago are slaugh- 
tered there, also 83 per cent, of the calves, 77 per cent, of the 
hogs, and 74 per cent, of the sheep. The business often amounts 
to $5,000,000 in a day, and averages well over $2,000,000 for 
every business day of the year. Not infrequently 2,000 car- 
loads of stock are received on Monday or Wednesday, the largest 
market days. When unloaded, the stock is taken in charge by 
some one of the many commission firms who sell to the packer, 
shipper, speculator, or feeder, and remit the proceeds to the 
consignor. % Prices established on this leading market form the 
basis of values for live stock at other markets and throughout 
the country. 

Average carloads. — Reports of stock yards and railroads 
show that the average number of meat animals to the carload 
is for cattle about 25, hogs in single-deck cars about 75, and 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 79 

sheep about 120 per deck. These figures represent mere averages. 
The number of animals per car varies greatly depending on the 
age and size of the animals. For example, a stock car 36 feet 
long will hold 55 calves weighing 400 lbs. each, 35 yearlings 
weighing 700 lbs., 25 cattle averaging 1000 lbs., 21 cattle weigh- 
ing 1200 lbs., or 19 cattle weighing 1400 lbs. each. 

Sources of receipts. — The corn-growing area of the Mississ- 
ippi and Missouri valleys affords the best facilities for the 
production of meat animals, and this area is tapped at many 
points by lines of railway centering in Chicago. The corn-fed 
cattle of Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Illinois, Indiana, 
and Ohio, and the grass-fed cattle of Montana, Wyoming, the 
Dakotas, and Texas, have easy access to Chicago. Steers are 
sold in Chicago that were born in Texas, matured in Montana, 
and finished in an Iowa feed-lot. Sheep often experience simi- 
lar wanderings before reaching market, but hogs usually come 
direct from the farm on which they were farrowed. 

Federal inspection. — Federal inspection for disease is rigid 
and includes live animals, carcasses, and packing-house prod- 
ucts intended as food. In 1915, the federal inspection con- 
ducted at all the large packing plants and at numerous other 
establishments throughout the country resulted in the condem- 
nation at slaughter of 3.44 per cent, of cattle, .51 per cent of 
calves, 3.40 per cent, of hogs, .15 per cent, of sheep, and .41 
per cent, of goats. The average of all animals was 1.83 per 
cent. Meat condemned after slaughter, including all meat and 
meat food products, prepared and processed, amounted to .36 
per cent. Nothing has done more to instil confidence in packers' 
meats than has the rigid governmental inspection. Packers' 
losses are frequently heavy on account of this inspection, mainly 
owing to tuberculosis. Crippled animals may go into the food 
supply. Diseased animals, diseased meats, and dead animals 
are consigned to the rendering tank, the products of which are 
grease, glue, and fertilizer. 

Development of the packing industry. — No explanation of 
the rise of the large live-stock markets in America is complete 
without some reference to the development of the immense 
packing industry. The history of the meat business is closely 
interwoven with the history of the live-stock markets, the two 
enterprises being mutually dependent upon each other. The 
Chicago market benefitted not only from its location and ship- 
ping facilities, but to a great extent also because of the large 



80 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

packing interests which centered there. That part of the yards 
where the group of packing plants is located is called "Packing- 
town." The various plants composing it are owned by Armour 
& Co., Swift & Co., Morris & Co., Wilson & Co., Libby, McNeill 
& Libby, Anglo-American Packing Co., Roberts & Oake, Ham- 
mond Packing Co., Western Packing Co., Louis Pfaelzer & Co., 
Boyd-Lunham Packing Co., Miller & Hart, Independent Pack- 
ing Co., Brennan Packing Co., and others. Many of these firms 
do a big business in dressed beef, thereby increasing the demand 
and helping to sustain prices for live cattle at Chicago. 

The numbers of cattle and calves slaughtered by leading 
Chicago packers in 1917 and 1918 were as follows: 

Cattle Calves 

igi8 igij igiS 1917 

Armour & Co 551,472 501,475 219,858 216,180 

Swift & Co 451,466 389,823 141,993 108,925 

Wilson & Co 390,412 325,239 78,944 69,537 

Morris & Co 369,136 350,061 97,020 97,895 

Hammond Co 231,714 174,771 7,292 25,680 

Libby Co 172,914 152,344 

Anglo-American 38,959 42,649 

Totals 2,206,073 1,936,362 545,107 516,217 

As already pointed out, hogs benefitted from the packing 
industry long before cattle, because beef did not interest packers 
to a great extent until the invention of artificial refrigeration 
and the substitution of the tin can for the oak barrel. Arthur 
Libby introduced canned corn beef in 1874, which was followed 
by dozens of palatable canned preparations. Previous to the 
installation of ice machines, packing operations were largely 
confined to the season of low temperatures. 

In 1876, about 250,000 cattle were slaughtered in Chicago, 
and more than three-fourths of these were handled by two firms 
—the Wilson Packing Co., and Libby, McNeill & Libby. The 
Wilson Packing Co. canned 15,000 to 16,000 head of cattle 
annually, and Libby, McNeill & Libby over 180,000, about one- 
half being canned and the other half put in barrels and tierces. 
Three-fourths of the product went to Great Britain. 

The refrigerator car. — There have been three eras in the 
evolution of the American meat industry: (1) The era of 
pickled meats, such as hams, pork products generally, and 
salted beef; (2) the era of artificial refrigeration and the refrig- 
erator car; (3) the era of complete utilization of by-products. 
The supremacy during the first era was first at Cincinnati, but 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 81 

it shifted to Chicago in the early sixties. In the early days, 
packing houses were operated only during the winter months, 
and no meats were packed in summer until large chill rooms were 
made possible through successful artificial refrigeration. In 
1875, Philip D. Armour erected in Chicago the first really large- 
scale chill room in the world, although small ice boxes had pre- 
viously been used by others. As early as 1868 a refrigerator 
car had been invented, but it was not until 1869 that the first 
through-line railroad was opened up between Chicago and New 
York so that cars of western meat could be shipped through to 
eastern markets without unloading. In 1869 the first consign- 
ment of dressed beef was shipped from Chicago to Boston, but 
the attempt was not successful. In 1875, G. F. Swift, who had 
come to Chicago that year, and who founded what is now Swift 
& Co., fitted up a car and shipped it east successfully. There- 
upon, this branch of the packing business was entered into rapidly, 
thus eliminating freight charges on the 40 to 44 per cent, waste 
of the live animal, the shrink on cattle during the long haul, 
the expense of feeding and watering en route, and the loss of 
those which died in transit. It cost $4.00 to $4.40 to ship a 
steer of 1,250 pounds weight from Chicago to New York, while 
the freight on the 700 pounds of fresh beef yielded by the ani- 
mal would amount to only $3.15, not including the expense of 
icing. From Kansas City to New York the saving amounts to 
about $2.50 per head. 

The total number of refrigerator cars in the United States 
is in excess of 100,000. Of this number, about 38,000 are under 
private as distinguished from railroad ownership. About two- 
thirds of the privately owned refrigerator cars are controlled 
by four leading packers. Armour, Swift, Morris, and Cudahy, 
and nearly one-half are used chiefly in the meat trade. 

Shrinkage of beef cattle in transit.^ — In an investigation 
made in 1913 by W. F. Ward of the U. S. Bureau of Animal 
Industry,* cattle in transit less than 24 hours shrank from 2.05 
to 3.91 per cent. Those in transit from 24 to 36 hours shrank 
from 3.46 to 6.37 per cent. Those in transit from 36 to 72 hours 
shrank 3.88 to 5.40 per cent. Those in transit over 72 hours 
shrank from 3.96 to 7.00 per cent. These figures are based_^on 
live weight at origin and "filled" weight at market. 



* U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 25, pp. 73, 74. 



82 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Pioneer exports of beef. — Still greater savings have been 
effected by changes in the export trade. Mr. John J. Bate, 
of New York, was the first to undertake shipments of dressed 
carcasses to Europe. On February 11, 1875, he made a small 
shipment to Liverpool which arrived in good condition. This 
was followed, on June 6, by a larger shipment, and on August 10, 
a still larger consignment to Liverpool was made, all arriving 
in good condition. In October, 1875, Mr. Timothy C. Eastman 
began his first shipments of fresh beef from America to England; 
Mr. Eastman is generally regarded as the pioneer in this enter- 
prise. He built up a very large business which continued 
many years. Others entered into the industry, and shipments 
were made from New York, Philadelphia, and Portland, Me. 
American beef was found in no way inferior to British beef, 
and was sold at from four to six cents lower retail rates. The 
advent of American meats caused considerable excitement 
among British farmers and stockmen, and considerable prejudice 
against our meats was aroused at some points, which has never 
been wholly overcome. The business increased rapidly, meats 
being successfully shipped from Chicago to England. A saving 
of more than one-half in shipping expenses is effected by export- 
ing dressed beef rather than its equivalent in live animals. From 
Argentina to England, two-thirds of the live-weight expenses 
are saved by sending dressed beef. 

The modern packing plant. — No better illustration of the 
growth of the packing industry can be had than that afforded 
by the rise and present proportions of one of the large packing 
companies at Chicago. In 1885, this concern was capitalized 
at $300,000; in 1886, at $3,000,000; in 1896, at $15,000,000; 
later at $35,000,000; in 1906 at $50,000,000; and in 1918 it was 
$150,000,000. It has packing plants in several American cities 
and also in South America and Australia, but the figures here 
presented apply only to its business in the United States. It has 
over 400 branch houses in the principal cities and towns of the 
United States, and owns and operates 7000 refrigerator cars. Its 
output of meat of all kinds in 1918 was almost 3 billion pounds. Its 
salesin 1918 totalled over $1,200,000,000. It paid $682,000,000 
to live-stock producers. Its profit on meat sales was only 
about 2 per cent., but the capital was turned over several times 
during the year. It earned 7.6 per cent, on the capital em- 
ployed. It paid its 25,000 stockholders a 6 per cent, dividend 
amounting to $9,000,000. In the year, it shipped 760,000,000 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 83 

pounds of meat to the American Army and Navy at home and 
abroad and to the Allied nations. In 1918, its Chicago plant 
converted into dressed meat 450,000 cattle, 142,000 calves, 
1,200,000 sheep, and 1,144,000 hogs. 

The American packing industry has made the outlet for 
American meats practically world-wide, and has afforded to 
the American grower of live stock an opportunity not enjoyed 
by producers elsewhere. The development of the American 
meat industry made a demand for cattle; cattle made a demand 
for corn, and increased its price; corn land rapidly increased in 
value, and with it all have come better farmers, better farming, 
and a more prosperous American agriculture. 

The cattle business of today. — The unknown quantities of 
shipping and marketing, which were the bugbear of the cattle- 
man of earlier times, have been reduced to a minimum. The 
producer of cattle knows, or ought to know, if he is to succeed 
in his business, just what grade his cattle will be classified under 
when they come before the buyer. Each class has its own price, 
varying from day to day in response to supply and demand. 
Daily market reports put the producer in touch with conditions 
and prices, and commission men advise him by letter whether 
it is a good time or a bad time to ship. Whereas charges were 
formerly uncertain, now they are definitely fixed, and the feeder 
can figure out all expenditures to the cent before his cattle start 
for market. Railway rates are much lower than twenty-five 
years ago, transportation is more direct and fast, there is much 
less cruelty to the animals in transit, less loss in transit, and 
less shrink between feed-lot and market. 

Yardage at Chicago is 30 cents per head for cattle and 20 
cents for calves. Hay is $40 per ton. The commission charges 
for selling cattle at Chicago are as follows: Cattle in car lots, 
70 cents per head; minimum per car $14, maximum $18. Calves 
in car lots, 30 cents per head; single-deck cars, minimum $14, 
maximum $18; double-deck cars, minimum $20, maximum $23. 
Less than 15 cattle in one car, $1 per head. Less than 28 calves 
in one car, 50 cents per head. 

As success in the commission business rests upon soundness 
of judgment, honesty, and skill, very few consignors undertake 
to do their own selling, but do it more profitably through the 
medium of the commission man. Today it is almost entirely 
a question of intelligence and industry in the business of cattle 



84 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

breeding and feeding. The market still fluctuates, to be sure, 
yet not in the violent fashion of old, and, as compared with 
early conditions, certainty has displaced uncertainty, giving 
stability and foundation to a great permanent cattle industry. 



CHAPTER VI. 
FASHIONS IN MARKET CATTLE. 

England and America, and other countries inhabited by 
EngHsh-speaking people, lead in meat consumption, especially 
in beef consumption. "The roast beef of old England" is well 
known as characteristic of the Englishman's culinary tastes, 
but Youatt records that in the time of Henry VIII. the Eng- 
lish people were "strangers to beef and mutton." The con- 
sumption of beef was confined principally to the summer months, 
and it sold at a very low price, so that there was no encourage- 
ment toward the production of beef cattle or beef. Instead, 
cattle were valued for milking purposes and most of all for field 
labor, and not until they had served a number of years as draft 
animals were they fattened for the butcher. Six-year-old oxen 
were sold from the plow to be fattened and then brought $50 
to $75. There is record of an ox that was worked until fifteen 
years old and then fattened fairly well. Those most certainly 
were not days when men talked of baby beef. Size, usefulness 
for field labor, and for dairy purposes were the qualities chiefly 
sought. Prior to the close of the eighteenth century, there was 
little exercise of care in the breeding of cattle, and feeding was 
an unknown art. But conditions gradually became better; 
England became more prosperous and wealthy, and there arose 
a demand for more and better beef, for which higher prices were 
paid. This impetus gave rise to the formation of the breeds 
of beef cattle, all of which originated in England and Scotland, 
unless we consider the Polled Shorthorn and Polled Hereford real 
American breed creations, which, of course, they are not, being 
the result of slight modifications of English breeds. 

When beef production was begun in earnest, more atten- 
tion was given to size and quantity than to quality. Judging 
from the records of early weights of cattle, and from drawings 
made at that time, cattle were ponderous, rough, slow-maturing 
beasts, and very patchy with great lumps of tallow. The ideals 
of those days were exemplified by such famous animals as the 
Durham Ox, weighing 3,024 pounds at five years of age, and 
The White Heifer That Traveled, weighing 2,300 pounds. These 
were early Shorthorns. Among early Hereford cattle, a bull, 

85 



86 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The General, weighed 3,640 pounds at six years. Another bull, 
Welhngton, weighed 2,912 pounds, had a girth of 11 feet, 3 
inches, and measured 11 feet, 4 inches, from muzzle to tail-head. 
Another Hereford bull, Hamlet, weighed 2,800 pounds, and a 
steer reached 2,912 pounds. At the first Smithfield Fat Stock 
Show held in London in 1799, a Hereford bullock described as 
8 feet, 11 inches, in length, 6 feet, 7 inches, in height, and 10 feet, 
4 inches, in girth, won first prize and sold for $500. Another ox 
at the same show measured 7 feet in height, and 12 feet, 4 inches, 
in girth. 




Fig. 16. Ideal of Early Beef Producers. 

The noted "White Heifer That Travelled," a Shorthorn, calved about 
1806, bred and fed by Robert Colling, of Barmpton, near DarHngton, in the 
county of Durham, England. A free-martin heifer, a non-breeder, fed to a 
weight of 2300 pounds, completely finished, and publicly exhibited through 
the principal agricultural counties of England to advertise the beef-making 
qualities of the Shorthorn breed, particularly the herds of Charles and Robert 
Colling, first noted improvers of the breed. From an engraving made when 
she was seven years old. The artist has undoubtedly refined the head, horns, 
and bone to a considerable degree, yet the picture typifies in the size, massive- 
ness, extreme fatness, and small bone of this animal the ideals of early beef 
producers. 

In England and America the attainment of large weights 
continued to be the aim of beef producers until rather recent 
times. Early maturity was not given much attention. It was 
simply a matter of making each animal as large as possible 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 87 

before consigning it to the butcher. Cattle were grown and 
fattened cheaply in those days, and the advantages of young, 
quick-maturing, highly-finished cattle were not so marked, nor 
was a good price offered for any except matured beeves. Stock- 
men at Albany, N. Y., offered $1,000 to anyone who would 
deliver a bullock weighing 4,000 pounds. Prior to 1856, two 
Illinois cattlemen fed one hundred head of high-grade Short- 
horn steers and marketed them at an average weight of 1,965 
pounds. About the same time, another feeder collected a lot 
of one hundred grade steers and fed them to the enormous 
average of 2,377 pounds as four-year-olds. These feats are said 
to have widely advertised the Shorthorn as a beef-making breed, 
the paramount consideration of cattle feeders at that time being 
the attainment of great weight and immense bulk. 

Fat-stock shows are, in most respects, criterions of market 
demands in cattle. The champions of early days were big, 
matured steers. In 1891, the Chicago Fat Stock Show elimi- 
nated classes for three-year-old cattle; that date marked the 
turning point toward what has since become known as "baby 
beef." In 1918 the International Live Stock Exposition at 
Chicago abolished the class for two-year-old steers. The ten- 
dency is more and more toward the finishing of younger, quicker- 
maturing animals. The changes that are being wrought are not 
plainly evident unless comparisons are made extending over a 
period of years, or unless the operations of some of the more 
progressive feeders have been followed during recent times. 

Breeders and feeders now put much stress on quickness 
of maturity. This they have secured by selecting short-legged, 
blocky, compact animals, which type reaches maturity much 
more rapidly than the long-legged, more rangy type, popular 
in the early days. Some sacrifice has been made of size and 
weight in order to produce a type that will make beef quickly, 
yet the better breeders are careful to maintain a proper degree 
of size along with the low-set, blocky type of body. The change 
has been vastly beneficial to the breeder, feeder, butcher, and 
ultimate consumer. 

Baby beef are choice and prime fat cattle, between 12 and 
20 months of age, weighing 800 to 1000 pounds. Yearlings 
make 25 to 50 per cent, more meat for the grain consumed than 
the same animals would make if kept until two or three years 
of age. The small, compact carcasses cut up with less waste, 
and furnish thick, light steaks such as are most in demand, be- 



88 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

cause they are cheaper and of a size adapted for domestic use. 
Such cattle will not dress out quite as high as older cattle, but 
the difference in percentage yield of carcass is due to a greater 
amount of tallow in the older animal, which materially lessens 
the older animal's superiority in this regard. The production 
of baby beef necessitates starting the fattening process at birth 
and carrying it on simultaneously with growth; the animal 
receives full feed from start to finish. As stated by the Breeder's 
Gazette: "The making of baby beef is a continuous performance 
which shows 365 daj^s in the ordinary year and 366 days in the 




Fig. 17. Prime Baby Beef. 

Hereford steer, Peerless Wilton 39th's Defender, Grand Champion at 
the International Live Stock Show in 1906. Bred, fed, and exhibited by- 
Mr. F. A. Nave, Attica, Ind. 

leap year. It is readily observable that there is no such thing 
as 'warming-up' or 'short-feeding' calves intended for the buyers 
of prime baby beef. Cattle may be 16 to 18 months of age and 
afterward warmed up a bit, but they will not class as baby 
beef and they will not bring the prices of that article." 

Baby beef can only be produced from well-bred calves, as 
only well-bred ones mature early enough to meet the market 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



89 



requirements for this kind of cattle. Such calves are hard to 
buy and the producer of baby beef cannot feel assured of obtain- 
ing them season after season by purchase, but is practically 
compelled to breed them for his own use. As breeding and 
feeding are rather distinct lines of enterprise, and as few feeders 
care to maintain a breeding herd, or have facilities for doing so, 
baby beef production is much less followed than would be the 
case if good calves were readily available. Furthermore, it has 
been shown that only those feeders skilled in the art of finishing 
cattle, and fully equipped to give the animals every chance, 
can successfully produce baby beef. 




Fig. 18. Baby Beeves on Feed. 

Grade Hereford calves in the feed-lot of E. M. Cassady & Sons, Whit- 
ing, la. c 



As long as thin two- and three-year-old steers may be pur- 
chased for feeding, there will be no marked increases in baby 
beef production. The time is now at hand, however, when a 
large percentage of beef cattle must not only be fed on the farms 
of the Mississippi and Missouri valleys, but bred there also. 
As it is no longer profitable for the farmer to first grow a steer 
.and then fatten him, the growing and fattening processes must 



90 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

be combined, and the cattle sent to market under 24 months of 
age; in other words, beef production must be placed very largely 
on a baby beef basis. 

Clay, Robinson & Co., of Chicago, in a communication to 
the writer, had the following to say concerning baby beef pro- 
duction: "There has been marked increase in the production 
of this class of cattle for the reason that the public demands 
them. For years the tendency has been toward the maturing 
of cattle at a younger and younger age. It was not so many 
years ago when an animal was not considered ready for the mar- 
ket under four years old, but evolution in beef production started, 
and the most desirable beeves in the market today are prime, 
fat yearlings." 

The above quotation is good evidence of the buyer's atti- 
tude toward baby beef. As showing the possibilities for profit 
to the producer of such cattle, the Kansas Station fed 130 grade 
Shorthorn, Hereford, and Angus calves that had just been 
weaned, and during seven months' feeding secured an average 
monthly gain of 56 pounds per head. The average weight at 
the beginning was 408 pounds; when sent to market seven months 
later, the average weight was 800 pounds, and the age was a 
little over one year. All except 32 head were heifers. The 
remarkable feature of this demonstration was the small amount 
of feed consumed. It required only 503 pounds of grain and 
509 pounds of hay to make 100 pounds gain in weight. The 
best record was made by 10 skim-milk calves that were fed alfalfa 
hay and corn. They consumed only 439 pounds of grain and 
436 pounds of hay for every 100 pounds of gain. When older 
cattle are fed, it usually requires about twice these amounts of 
grain arid roughage to secure 100 pounds of gain. 

E. M. Cassady & Sons, of Whiting, Iowa, made a test of 
the cost and rate of gains made by Hereford steers started on 
feed as calves and yearlings. These steers were of the same 
breeding, having been bred on the Cassady farm from the same 
sire and dams. The calves weighed 475 pounds when put on 
feed, and were charged at $6.00 per cwt.; the yearlings weighed 
775 pounds, and were charged at $5.70 per cwt. Although 
the calves were fed for a longer period than the yearlings, the 
average cost of 100 pounds of gain was $10.80 for the calves, 
as compared with $15.65 for the yearlings. The calves made a 
profit of $20.00 per head, and the yearlings made a profit of 
$14.00. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



91 



In three years work, including three trials, the Indiana 
Experiment Station found that when feed prices were such that 
it cost $7.74 to produce 100 pounds of gain on baby beeves, it 
cost $9.09 to make the same gain on yearlings, and $9.37 on 
two-year-Olds. 

Steer and Heifer Beef. 

The heading of this chapter, "Fashions in Market Cattle," 
implies that the demands of the cattle market are subject to 
change. The truth of this has been shown by the preceding 
discussion of the trend away from the old-time, heavy, matured 




Fig. 19. Prime Fat Heifer. 

beeves, and toward the finishing of younger cattle. The word, 
"fashions," also implies that the market indulges in some prac- 
tices that are not entirely utilitarian and practical, but are more 
or less fanciful and whimsical. That this is true will be shown 
by a consideration of the cattle market's discrimination against 
fat heifers as compared with fat steers. When the heifer is 
well fed, she is consigned to a lower class than a steer of the 
same breeding, same fatness, same quality, same age and form. 
In some countries, heifers outsell steers for beef purposes. In 
this country there is discrimination in price against heifers on 
the market, and for that reason heifers are rarely as well fed as 
steers. 



92 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



In September, 1892, Wilson and Curtiss, of the Iowa Ex- 
periment Station,* purchased five steers and ten heifers and 
began an experiment to determine whether a discrimination 
against fat heifers is justifiable. All of these cattle were year- 
ling grade Shorthorns, all sired by the same bull. Five of the 
heifers were spayed soon after purchase, and all fifteen head 
were roughed until January 4, 1893, when they were grain-fed 
for eleven months, and then shipped to Chicago. There they 
were sold on the open market to Swift & Co., who made slaughter 
and block tests of the animals. The results of the experiment 
are condensed into the following table: 



Weights, costs, gains, prices, yields, profits. 



Original weight, September 12th, lbs 

Cost, per lb., cents 

Total cost 

Cost of pasture and fodder prior to January 4th. 



Weight, January 4th, lbs 

Average gain on feed per animal per day, lbs 

Total gain 

Average cost feed per lb. gain, cents 

To' al cost feed 

Shrink in shipping, lbs 

Selling weight, lbs 

Selling price per lb., cents 

Selling price, total 

Freight, yardage, and commission 

Profit 



Beef (warm weight) , lbs , 

Dressing percentage 

Total tallow, lbs 



10 loins, per cent, of carcass . . 
10 loins, price per lb., cents . . . 
10 ribs per cent, of carcass. . . . 
10 ribs, price per lb., cents. . . . 
10 rounds, per cent, of carcass . 
10 rounds, price per lb., cents . 



Margin between live cost and sales of meat and by- 
products, not including expense of killing and 
handling 



5 

Steers 



4005. 
3.5 

$140.18 
20.00 



4093 

2. 

4032 

5, 

$202. 

215, 

7910. 

5. 

$454. 

24. 

67. 



4997. 
63.2 
969.5 



16.7 
15. 
10.1. 
15. 
24.1 
6. 



$ 20.45 



5 
Open 
heifers 



3455. 
2. 

$ 69.10 
20.00 



3592. 

1.99 
3288. 

6.04 
$198.70 

290. 
6590. 

4.75 

$313.02 

24.71 

.51 



4110. 
62.4 
648.75 



17.6 
13.5 
10.8 
13.5 
21.5 
5.75 



$ 58.12 



5 

Spayed 
heifers 



3998. 
2. 
$ 79.96 
20.00 



3994. 

2.07 
3416. 

5.86 
$200.32 
280. 
7130. 

4.75 

$338.67 

24.71 

13.68 



4475. 
62.8 
701.5 



17.7 
13.5 
10.9 
13.5 
21.7 
5.65 



$ 64.84 



The returns made by the heifers to Swift & Co. would 
have justified a purchase price of $5.37 per cwt. for the spayed 
heifers and $5.32 for the open heifers, instead of $4.75 for each, 
and still have left the same margin of profit as in the steers. It 
is clear, then, that the difference in the live-weight value of the 



* la. Bui. 24. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 93 

steers and heifers was only about 40 cents per cwt., instead of 
$1.00 a cwt. made by the buyers. Expert opinions secured 
from Chicago packers as to why the heifer carcasses sold at less 
price per pound than the steer carcasses were to the effect that 
heifers make more fat where the steers make lean meat. There 
is said to be more lean meat in a steer loin and a larger tender- 
loin. Otherwise, the carcasses were said to be of equal value. 

It is a well-known fact that Englishmen make no discrim- 
inations against heifer beef, indeed they pay more for it than 
for steer beef. Wilson and Curtiss corresponded with several 
Englishmen concerning this matter, and the substance of the 
replies was that heifers yield meat of finer grain and better 
quality, are good cutters, and yield little rough meat. Rib 
and loin cuts from spayed heifer carcasses were valued two 
cents per pound higher than the same cuts from steer carcasses 
equally well fattened. Plate cuts from heifers were valued 
one cent higher. Heifer beef was said to be better marbled, 
more pleasing in appearance, more juicy, and more palatable. 

In 1894, the Iowa Station* conducted a second experiment 
with steers and spayed and open heifers. The same plan was 
followed as in the first experiment and the results were prac- 
tically the same, thus verifying the results of the first test. 

Evidently English and American standards for meats vary 
somewhat, and public preference has been cultivated along 
different lines in the two countries. So far as our American 
markets are concerned, it seems that the difference in prices 
paid for fat steers and heifers may not be justified by any real 
difference in the cuts of meat, yet the condition must be accepted 
nevertheless, and producers must shape their operations accord- 
ingly. There is, however, one logical objection to heifers; it 
is that they are frequently pregnant, which lowers the dressing 
percentage and may affect the value of the carcass. At the 
present time the discrimination against heifers amounts to 
50 or 75 cents per cwt. for open heifers, and about 25 cents per 
cwt. in the case of spayed heifers. There is not as much dis- 
crimination in price against fat young heifers as against fat 
heifers of older age. 

The question of spaying. — As the experiment just dis- 
cussed dealt with spayed and open heifers, a word may be said 
here about the comparative merits of the two from the stand- 

* la. Bui. 33. 



94 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

point of the feeder. As a rule, open heifers make greater gains 
because of the setback caused by the operation of spaying. Once 
recovered from the operation, the spayed heifers gain faster, 
but do not reach as large weights as open heifers. The recur- 
rence of heat in open heifers and their restlessness at that time 
retards the gains made, as compared with spayed heifers re- 
covered from the operation. Spayed heifers are said to yield 
beef of slightly higher quality. Spaying entails a certain expense 
and there is danger of mortality. The general practice is not 
to spay when it is possible to separate the heifers and feed them 
in a lot by themselves. When it is desired to feed heifers along 
with steers, it is desirable that they be spayed, otherwise the 
recurrence of heat causes considerable commotion among the 
cattle, decreasing the gains made and increasing the cost. 



CHAPTER VII. 
SELECTION OF FEEDER STEERS. 

Beef producers may be divided into two groups — (1) men 
who grow beef, and (2) cattle feeders. In the first group are 
those who maintain breeding herds for the production of steers 
for the market. This group includes the western cattle man on 
the range and also the farmer who keeps a small herd of beef 
cows. The beef grower has a year-round job. Furthermore, 
he usually follows the business steadily for a period of years. 
The very nature of the business demands that it be established 
on a permanent basis. It cannot be followed one year, given 
up the next year, and begun again the next, with any fair expec- 
tation of profits. The second group includes those who follow 
the practice of buying thin cattle to be fattened. This is simply 
a finishing process, and is more speculative in character than 
that of growing beef. It may be followed intermittently, although 
most successful feeders are in the business regularly each year. 
Furthermore, in the cornbelt states, where grain feeding is prac- 
ticed, it is usually limited to a few months of the year and usually 
to those months when other farm work is slack. 

In an investigation of methods of marketing live stock and 
meats, made by the U. S. Department of Agriculture* in 1915, 
reports were received from 2072 special live-stock and price 
reporters of the Bureau of Crop Estimates which indicated that 
74 per cent, of stockers and feeders are bought in the fall, 19 
per cent, in the spring, 3 per cent, in the summer, and 4 per 
cent, in the winter. It was also indicated that 55 per cent, of 
stocker and feeder cattle purchased are bought in the district 
in which they are fed or grazed, 27 per cent, at the centralized 
markets, and 18 per cent, in the country, other than locally. 

As shown in the preceding chapter, the cornbelt beef grower 
finds baby beef production profitable. On his high-priced land 
he cannot afford to raise steers to two years old or older and 
then fatten them. The cornbelt cattle feeder, however, is not 
bound by the same rules. He usually buys western steers 
raised on cheaper lands, and so long as thin two- and three-year- 



U. S. Dept. Agr. Report 113, p. 17. 

95 



96 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



old steers may be bought at prices low enough to make them 
profitable, the feeder will continue to make use of them as well 
as of calves and yearlings. 

Profits in cattle feeding come from skill in feeding and 
management, and also from intelligent bujdng and selling. There 
is practiced what is known as "speculative cattle feeding" in 
which feeders emphasize the buying and selling more than they 
do the actual feeding of the animals, the object being to buy 
on a low market and sell when the market is high. Omitting 
this speculative feature from consideration, it may be said that 
the sources of profit in feeding a steer are (1) the increase in 




Fig. 20. Fancy Selected Feeders. 

weight of the animal, and (2) the increase in the value of the 
animal's initial weight. For example, if we buy a thin steer 
at 8 cents per pound, and fatten him during four or six months 
feeding, we increase not only his weight, but also his value per 
pound. If the initial weight was 1000 pounds, and the final 
weight was 1325 pounds, he should sell at 10 cents per pound 
without any rise of the cattle market during the feeding period. 
Then the net income to the feeder would be as follows: 

325 pounds at 10c $32.50 

1000 pounds at 2c 20. 00 

Net income $52.50 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 97 

The difference between the cost price and seUing price per 
pound is spoken of as the "margin." The steer feeder counts 
on at least 2 cents per pound margin, and when cattle and feed- 
stuffs are very high in price a greater margin is necessary. As 
shown by the above calculation, heavy cattle may be handled 
on narrower margins than light ones, for if the initial weight of 
the steer had been 600 pounds instead of 1000 pounds, other 
factors remaining the same, then the net income would have 
been less by $8.00. As a matter of fact, however, the younger 
steer would probably make his 325 pounds of gain somewhat 
cheaper than the older steer, thus compensating, in part at 
least, the advantage of the older animal. 

Success in fattening cattle requires a thorough knowledge 
of two classes of cattle — fat steers of the better grades, and 
stockers and feeders, — the beginning and the end of the feeding 
process. The cattle feeder must be an expert judge of a thin 
animal, as well as a good judge of the finished product. "Well 
bought is half sold." Failure to select the right kind of steers 
for feeding is alone sufficient to cause failure in the business. 
The cattle feeder must have a good knowledge of the values of 
the various grades of feeders, and must use judgment as to 
whether or not to buy, and if he buys it is again a matter of 
judgment as to which grade of feeders may be purchased, fed, 
and sold with the greatest profit. The actual buying, however, 
is usually put in the hands of a commission firm; such firms 
also freely and intelligently advise the purchaser concerning 
the matters here discussed. 

The points which determine the value of feeder steers are 
age and weight, form, quality, constitution and thrift, natural 
fleshing, condition, breeding, disposition, style, and uniformity. 
Each of these is briefly discussed. 

1. Age and weight. — Calves and yearlings require a longer 
feeding period, as a rule, than two- or three-year-old steers. 
This is due to the fact that young animals grow while they fatten, 
and hence fatten more slowly than older animals. Most cattle 
feeders prefer two- and three-year-old steers for feeding pur- 
poses, and this is especially true where a "short feed" of from 
60 to 90 days is given. For the "long feed" of 120 to 180 days or 
more, calves and yearlings may be satisfactory if carefully 
selected and properly handled. Some feeders prefer the older 
steers even for the longer feed. The common practice is to 
buy feeders that weigh from 900 to 1000 pounds, or even heavier. 



98 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Such steers are 18 months old, or over. A thrifty steer, well 
developed for his age is usually more profitable than a stunted 
animal. 

A considerable amount of experimental work has been done 
to determine the relative advantages in feeding calves, year- 
lings, and two-year-olds at the Kansas, South Dakota, Missouri, 
Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana experiment stations. These experi- 
ments have been based entirely upon the finishing period or, 
in other words, have been planned from the standpoint of the 
cattle feeder rather than the grower, and the results indicate 
that under present conditions it is more profitable to feed two- 
year-old cattle than calves. This conclusion is based upon 
the difficulty of securing calves of the type, breeding, and quality 
necessary for fattening at an early age, the greater margin be- 
tween buying and selling prices, the shorter feeding period, 
more rapid gains, greater production of pork from hogs following 
the cattle, smaller proportion of grain to roughage, and broader 
demand for finished heavy steers. 

In three different trials at the Indiana Experiment Station* 
the calves required 90 days and the yearlings 20 days longer 
feeding period than the two-year-olds, to make them prime. 
The average daily gain of the calves was .61 pound per head less 
than that of the two-year-olds and .34 pound less than that of 
the yearlings. The following conclusions were drawn from the 
Indiana experiments: 

1. The initial cost per cwt. of calves is greater than that 
of older cattle. 

2. The length of time necessary for finishing steers de- 
creases with increased age of the cattle. 

3. The rate of gain and the cost of gain increases with 
the increased age of the cattle. 

4. The proportion of roughage to concentrates consumed 
increases with the increased age of the cattle. 

5. The amount of gain necessary in finishing cattle of 
equal condition decreases as their age increases. 

6. The difference in total quantity of feed necessary for 
finishing cattle of different ages and fed to the same marketable 
finish is negligible. 

7. The calves made an average profit of $4.25 per head, 
the yearlings $6.43, and the two-year-olds $7.95. 



* Ind. Bui. 146. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 99 

8. The increase in live weight necessary to make calves 
prime was 103 per cent.; yearlings, 54 per cent.; and two-year- 
olds 43.6 per cent, of their initial weights at the beginning of 
the feeding period. 

9. The difference in cost of one hundred pounds of gain 
between calves and yearlings was $1.35 in favor of the calves; 
between yearlings and two-year-olds, 28 cents in favor of the 
yearlings. 

10. The experienced farmer who feeds cattle should handle 
older cattle in preference to calves, while the farmer who pro- 
duces and finishes his own cattle may find calves profitable. 

The Missouri Experiment Station* drew the following con- 
clusions from feeding 300 cattle of various ages on heavy grain 
rations in connection with bluegrass pasture: 

1. Two-year-old cattle make larger average daily gains 
than yearlings, 

2. Two-year-old cattle consumed from 13 to 22 per cent, 
more grain per day per head than did yearlings. 

3. Two-year-old cattle consumed more grain per day per 
thousand pounds live weight than yearlings. 

4. Yearlings require less grain for each pound of gain than 
do two- or three-year-old cattle. Other things being equal, the 
younger the animal, the less grain is required to make a pound 
of gain. The condition of the animal at the beginning of the 
feeding period is an important factor, and may to a large extent 
counteract the influence of age in determining cheaper gains. 

5. In these investigations, the fattening of two- and three- 
year-old cattle has been generally more profitable than fatten- 
ing yearlings. The chief reasons are: 

(a) The margin between the buying and selling price is 
less in the case of yearlings. The older cattle fatten in a shorter 
period. 

(b) It is not generally advisable to try to finish the cheaper 
grades of yearlings. In our investigations, the quality of the 
yearlings has generally been higher than that of the older cattle. 
In spite of this fact, the financial results have seemed to favor 
the feeding of older cattle. 

When all evidence as to the comparative merits of calves, 
yearlings, and older cattle for feeding purposes is summed up, 
the outstanding points are as follows: 



* Mo. Bui. 90. 



100 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

1. Young animals, which are fattened as they grow, make 
cheaper gains than older animals. This is the chief advantage 
of the young animal. 

2. The older animals enjoy a wider margin between cost 
price and selling price per pound, they fatten in less time, and 
the cost of feed per head is practically the same as for the younger 
animals. These are the chief advantages of the older animal. 

In the investigations which have been made by our state 
experiment stations, the advantages of the older animal out- 
weighed the advantage of the younger animal, making the two- 
year-olds more profitable than the yearlings or calves. Fur- 
thermore, a table of costs and prices does not fully emphasize 
the marked ability of the older animal to consume roughage 
during the fattening period. Where considerable quantities 
of silage, hay, or other roughage must be utilized, and this is 
very frequently the case, older steers are desirable. Neverthe- 
less, in some instances and in certain years the younger animals 
may be preferable. For example, with higher cost of older 
steers, and lower price of feeds, calves may be purchased and 
fed at a greater profit. Another point which is frequently of 
practical importance is the fact that the initial cost of calves 
per head is much less than that of older cattle. Three or four 
calves may be bought for the price of one two-year-old steer, 
and the feed-lot may be filled at a much smaller outlay of capital. 
For this reason, some farmers must feed calves if they are to 
feed at all. 

2. Form. — The form should be as nearly identical as pos- 
sible with the description given for the fat steer. Allowances 
must, of course, be made for the absence of fat in the thin animal, 
for we cannot expect a thin steer to appear extremely blocky 
and low set. Yet even in thin condition the steer should be 
low set, deep, broad, compact, and balanced; such conformation 
insures feeding capacity and early maturity. Broad, level tops 
make possible a maximum development of high-priced cuts, and 
are indicative of superior form in the feeder. High-grade feeders 
have a straight top line and straight underline, the two being 
nearly parallel. For best results, a large feeding capacity is 
of very great importance. The muzzle should be broad, the 
barrel wide and deep, and the flanks well let down. An excess- 
ive paunch is undesirable, as it rarely disappears during fattening 
and shipping and will lessen the price paid for the finished steer 
on the market. Some degree of paunchiness may be termed 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



101 



a good fault in a feeder, but the best feeders have much depth 
and fullness of middle without being objectionably paunchy. 
The feeder should have as much smoothness as is consistent 
with thinness. Too great prominence of shoulder, hips, and 
tail-head should be avoided. There should be nothing in his 
form that will prevent a high degree of smoothness being secured 
when he is fattened. It should be remembered that the propor- 
tions of the head and neck correspond with the type of body, 
and in making selections of young thin cattle these are depend- 
able indicators of the turn the form will take during development 
and finishing. 

The head demands far more attention in the feeder than in 
the finished steer. We look for what is termed the "feeder's 




Fig. 21. An Average Load of Steers on Feed. 



head," that is, a head of much width between the eyes, short 
and clean-cut from eyes to muzzle, very broad at the muzzle, 
but not coarse, large of nostril, and strongly muscled and well 
developed in cheeks and jaws. The eye should be large, prom- 
inent, bright, clear, and placid. Polled or dehorned cattle are 
preferred by feeders, although this feature does not affect the 
grading of the animal on the market. More hornless cattle 
can be put in the feed-lot or car, and they make more rapid 
gains on feed because of less commotion and less difficulty in 
getting up to the feed-racks. Hornless cattle shrink less in 
shipment, the carcasses show fewer bruises, and the hides are 
more valuable. Being in greater demand, they sell at slightly 
higher prices. Dehorning gives cattle a setback, causes wild- 



102 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

ness for a time, and is not advisable if cattle are to be put on 
feed immediately, except in the case of calves or yearlings that 
are to be given a long feed. 

3. Quality. — The indications of quality in beef cattle have 
been discussed. Quality and good breeding are usually found 
in company, and good breeding surely "tells" in the feed-lot. 
Quality also insures smoothness and a higher dressing percentage, 
points of much importance in the eyes of the buyer of fat cattle. 
Coarse, staggy heads and necks indicate late castration. Stags 
sell at a discount on the fat steer market. 

4. Constitution and thrift. — A wide, deep chest, full heart- 
girth, and deep, broad body are evidences of a strong constitu- 
tion. Avoid that steer which has quality carried to the point 
of delicacy, as only vigorous, rugged cattle make big gains on 
feed. When choosing between two steers, one of which is too 
refined in head, hide, and bone, and the other a trifle too rugged, 
or what might be termed slightly on the coarse order, it will 
usually be wisest to select the more rugged steer; he will usually 
consume more feed, gain more consistently, and make his gains 
at less cost than will the over-refined animal. 

A thrifty, healthy steer makes known the fact in a bright, 
clear eye, sleek coat of hair, and a loose, sappy hide. He is 
wide awake and gives evidence that he "feels good." Avoid 
the steer with the small, dull eye, tight hide, dry, staring coat, 
hanging head, and lifeless gait. Red blood and good health 
indicate ability to assimilate feed and make gains. 

5. Natural fleshing. — This refers to lean meat or muscle. 
As previously pointed out, feeding does not add muscle to an 
animal; the muscle must be born on the steer. The cattle 
feeder's job is to fatten beef, and he must buy the beef or muscle 
when he buys his steers. Look for muscular necks, backs, 
loins, and rounds. Such steers bring the best prices when 
properly fattened. 

6. Condition counts in judging feeders. The more fat a 
feeder steer carries, the quicker and cheaper he may be finished. 
Other things being equal, fleshy feeders are more desirable than 
very thin ones. Furthermore, if the steer is too thin he cannot 
class as a feeder, but instead is classed as a stocker. Stockers 
are thin enough to make gains in condition on grass or roughage. 
Feeders c'arry more flesh and are ready for the feed-lot. Exper- 
ienced cattle men buy as much condition as possible when they 
buy their feeders. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



103 



7. Breeding. — Steers of good beef breeding are much pre- 
ferred over those which have more or less of a scrub or dairy- 
ancestry. We look for evidences of beef breeding in the form, 
quality, fleshing, and color of the animals. The beef-bred 
animal is more rectangular in build, more compact and blocky, 
and lower set than the dairy-bred steer. The steer of beef 
breeding is plumper and thicker in his muscles throughout. 
The dairy-bred steer stands high off the ground, has a long, 
narrow head, cuts up in the flank, is split up in the twist, cat- 
hammed, and rough in conformation over the hips and rump. 
His bone is usually too fine, and his hide too thin and "papery" 
in texture. Coarse, rough steers, with coarse, plain heads, show 
lack of good ancestry. The wide, short, clean-cut head, with 




Fig. 22. Fancy Feeder Calves. 



broad muzzle, good eye, and marked indications of what is often 
termed "character," may be accepted as one of the very best 
evidences not only of beef breeding, but of good beef breeding. 
The more one deals with feeder cattle the more one learns to 
study heads and to place reliance on what the head indicates 
as to form, quality, feeding capacity, constitution, thrift, breed- 
ing, and disposition. 

The colors of the beef breeds are certainly preferred in 
feeder steers, but many scrub animals masquerade under these 
colors. Red, roan, or black are frequently found in animals 
carrying a very small percentage of Shorthorn, Hereford, Aber- 
deen-Angus, or Galloway blood. The same is true of the polled 



104 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

head of the Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Polled Durham, and 
Polled Hereford. Well-bred beef steers carry the colors of the 
beef breeds, but these colors do not always cover well-bred beef 
steers. Color alone is not a safe guide to good breeding. Color 
gives unmistakable evidence, however, if it is the fawn, or spotted 
white and fawn, of the Jersey and Guernsey, or the black and 
white markings of the Holstein. In such cases, color furnishes 
all the evidence we need as to the breeding of the animal. As 
to which of the beef breeds should be given preference when 
selecting feeders, that is almost entirely a matter of personal 
fancy. They are all good, and there is no best. There are 
differences to be sure, but none great enough to claim attention 
here. 

8. Disposition. — Nervous, restless cattle are profit-losers 
on feed. In many instances, with proper handling, such steers 
quiet down a great deal as the feeding period progresses, but in 
many other instances this is not true. The eye and the carriage 
of the head, ears, and tail are indications of the disposition. A 
high-headed, wild-eyed steer, with ears in motion to catch the 
slightest sound, stampedes on the least provocation. The poll 
of the head should be carried on a line with the back, and the 
eyes should be placid in expression, indicating a quiet, con- 
tented feeder that will make gains in proportion to the feed he 
consumes, instead of wasting his energy in nervousness and 
frightened antics. 

9. Style. — A low-backed, awkward, slouching kind of a 
steer may feed as well and yield as good a carcass as a wide- 
awake, straight-lined steer that stands squarely on his legs, 
but other things being equal the latter steer looks much better 
and attracts more favorable attention on the market than the 
former. A steer of good style shows for all he is worth. The 
other kind fail to make a good impression at first sight, and 
on a crowded market this may mean much. 

10. Uniformity in size and color adds much to the attract- 
iveness of a load of cattle, and in buying feeders this point is 
worthy of attention. They look better in the feed-lot, and an 
even load of steers attracts more attention on the market than 
does a mixture of all sizes, colors, and sorts. 

In addition to the foregoing, other points may well be con- 
sidered in selecting feeders. Avoid cattle that have cuts, sores, 
or lumps on them anywhere, especially those showing lumpy 
jaw. Avoid blind steers, lame ones, and those with crooked 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 105 

legs. Big, sprawling brands affect the value of the hide. When 
determining upon the price, remember to consider the amount 
of fill the cattle will carry to the scales. In buying at the large 
markets, avoid "stale" cattle, which means those that have 
been on the market several days and are too well filled. Watch 
the droppings for evidence of grain feeding, and give preference 
to grass-fed cattle as they are usually more thrifty and respond 
better to grain feeding. A steer that has had grain to put him 
in feeder condition may be looked on with suspicion. He may 
be a hard feeder and poor doer. Go to the market and accom- 
pany the commission man when he selects and buys your feeders. 
You will learn much from your visit to the market and the com- 
mission man will be aided by knowing exactly the kind of cattle 
you want. 

Advantages of cattle feeding. — The reasons for fattening 
a steer are many and important, even though feeding does not 
increase the lean meat or muscle. They are as follows: 

1. Feeding increases the value of the steer. 

(a) Adds weight to the animal. 

(b) Improves the form and appearance. 

(c) Increases the dressing percentage. 

(d) Covers the carcass with fat so that it may be held 
in the cooler long enough to ripen. 

(e) The marbling expands the lean meat, making the 
steer thicker in all his cuts. 

(f) Makes the beef more tender and juicy. 

(g) Fat beef cooks much better than lean beef. 
(h) Fat meat is more nutritious than lean meat. 

2. Utilizes as feed much that would otherwise be waste 
on the farm. 

3. Gives employment to labor when other farm work is 
slack. 

4. Makes easily possible the maintenance and improve- 
ment of soil fertility. 

5. Cattle feeding, properly managed, is a profitable enter- 
prise. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF CATTLE. 

The large live-stock markets classify their receipts of cattle 
into various classes and grades, depending upon the quality, 
condition, weight, age, and sex of the animals. A market class 
may be defined as a group of animals on the live-stock market, all 
of which are suitable for a certain commercial use. 

There is a clear distinction between type and market class. 
A type represents an ideal which the breeder or feeder is en- 
deavoring to produce. Types represent only the most highly 
desirable or profitable sorts of animals, while there are market 
classes for all sorts of animals — ^profitable and unprofitable from 
the producer's standpoint. The market classification represents 
the practical outcome of producers' attempts to reach ideals, 
and a visit to any market will show that often they do not reach 
them. Hence, some market classes have counterparts among 
the types, and some have not. The latter might be termed 
the by-products or misfits of the breeder's art. Of these there 
is always a percentage, depending upon how difficult a task the 
producer set for hinself; the more extreme the tjrpe, the greater 
the percentage of misfits. Most of these misfits are useful, and 
some return a profit to the producer. 

There will always be some market classes which return a 
maximum profit to the breeder and feeder, and these the breeder 
will try to produce by adjusting his type accordingly and select- 
ing animals for breeding purposes which nearest approach the 
ideal, — in other words, typical animals. The less profitable 
market classes are filled incidentally, not through any design 
on the part of the breeder. Some market classes are composed 
of animals that have already served one or more purposes ; having 
outlived their usefulness, they are discarded and sent to market. 
The market is accommodating; it provides a place for all sorts 
of odds and ends, and hunts up a use for them. Thus, some 
market classes persist which at first thought have no excuse 
for being. Everything classifies somewhere. The types are 
logically much fewer than the market classes. 

On the large live-stock markets, cattle are handled accord- 
ing to the following classification : 

106 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 107 

1. Fat steers, including all fat steers suitable for block 
beef. 

2. Western range cattle, including all grass-fed branded 
cattle direct from western ranges. 

3. Butcher stock, including the better grades of heifers, 
cows, and bulls suitable for block beef. 

4. Cutters and canners, including mostly thin cows and 
bulls, but also inferior steers and heifers, in fact anything not 
suitable for feeding, and too inferior to yield a carcass suitable 
for block use, 

5. Stockers and feeders, including thin calves, yearlings, 
two-year-olds, and older cattle. It may include steers, heifers, 
cows, or bulls. 

6. Veal calves, including all grades of veal calves. 

7. Milkers and springers. — These are cattle of dairy 
breeding which are usually more valuable for milking purposes 
than for beef. They are sorted out and sold for dairy purposes. 

Fat Steers. 

The fat steer class represents the cream of the market, 
including only those steers which show the effects of good feed- 
ing. In this class condition and quality are of more importance 
than weight. The demand comes from two classes of buyers: 
(1) Packers for dressed beef slaughtered in Chicago, and (2) 
eastern buyers who ship for slaughter to Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Baltimore, Cleveland, Albany, Detroit, 
and many other cities. The cattle which classify as fat steers 
may be divided into five grades. A grade is a division of a 
market class or sub-class, the division depending upon value. 
The grades of fat steers are: (1) Prime, (2) choice, (3) good, 
(4) medium, and (5) common. Each market class is divided up 
into various grades. For example, we speak of "prime steers," 
"medium steers," "good cows," "common canners," "choice 
feeders," etc. Fat steers dress from 55 to 67 per cent, and 
supply the highest class of trade. 

Prime steers. — This is the most select grade of the fat 
steer class. Buyers for eastern markets take most of this grade, 
and packers take the rest. Prime steers are practically above 
criticism in form, quality, and fatness. They show a high de- 
velopment of flesh in loin, back, thighs, twist, and rump, are 
very broad and deep, and are free from paunchiness. The 
head is medium-sized and clean-cut. The bone is clean and 



108 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



fine, the skin pliable and medium thick, and the outlines are 
smooth and well rounded. The flesh is abundant in all parts, 
and is firm, yet mellow and springy to the touch. There are 
no ties, rolls, or patches of flabby fat, but a smooth, even, deep, 
firm fleshing everywhere. Prime steers weighing from 1200 
to 1400 pounds are in greatest demand, although they may 
weigh up to 1600 pounds. Very few steers come to market 
which grade as prime. At the conclusion of the International 
Live Stock Exposition, which is held at the Union Stock Yards 
in December, most of the fat steers are sold, and these are usually 
prime, but it requires much searching to locate cattle of this 
sort at other periods of the year. 




Fig. 23. Prime Fat Steers. 

Choice steers.— If a steer is not quite right in quality or 
condition, but still possesses to a marked degree the charac- 
teristics most sought by packers and shippers, he is called a 
choice steer. 

Good steers. — Good fat steers may be of very good quality, 
but noticeably lacking in condition or finish; they may be fin- 
ished or in prime condition, yet lacking in quality; or they may 
be noticeably deficient in both quality and condition, but still 
good enough to be above the average grade of fat cattle reach- 
ing the market. By far the largest number of steers belonging 
to the good grade may be said to be a little on the coarse order; 
they are fat and of good weight, but rather plain. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



109 



Medium steers. — These are of about average quality and 
condition, lacking to a marked degree the finish and quality 
demanded in a prime steer. They are generally too paunchy 
and too lacking in condition and quality to dress a high per- 
centage of beef or show a good proportion of fat. The beef 
from such steers is not good enough to meet the demands of 
dealers in beef of the best quality, nor is the proportion of the 
high-priced cuts large. 

Common rough steers. — This is the lowest grade of steers 
coming to the market. They are very much lacking in form, 




Fig. 24. Choice Fat Steers. 



quality, and condition. Steers of good quality that are not fat 
enough to be classed as beef steers are classed among the better 
grades of stockers and feeders; therefore, this grade includes 
only those steers which are too thin to sell among the higher 
grades of beef cattle, and too coarse and rough to be sold as 
stockers and feeders. 

Heifers. — Two to four heifers mixed in with a load of fat 
steers may be passed without any cut in price if they are similar 
to the steers in all respects except sex. However, this class is 
a fat-steer proposition, and market reports always give separate 
quotations for fat steers and fat heifers. 



110 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Sub-class baby beef. — Choice and prime fat steers between 
12 and 20 months of age and weighing from 800 to 1000 pounds 
are styled "baby beef" or "fat yearlings" upon the market. 
These are not separated from the fat steer class, but constitute 
a sub-class within it. As pointed out in the preceding chapter, 
the fat yearling is becoming the most prominent feature of the 
cattle market. Beginning in 1904, fat yearlings have steadily 
increased in numbers, this increase having been most marked 
during the past few years. Most market reports now give 
separate quotations for this sub-class. 




Fig. 25. Good Fat Steers. 

Source of the fat steer class. — Cattle which classify as fat 
steers come from the feed-lots of the cornbelt states. They are 
steers which have been grain-fed. The class includes steers 
that were bred and raised in the cornbelt, known as "native" 
steers, and also branded steers bred and raised on western ranges 
and then taken to cornbelt farms to be fattened. The latter 
are sometimes called "fed Westerns," 

Western Range Cattle. 

Not so many years ago, western cattle were distinguished 
by very long horns, long legs, thin flesh, narrow bodies, and 
large, deep brands. This type was known as the "Texas long- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



111 



horn." So many purebred beef bulls have been taken to the 
ranges, however, that today the long-horned Texan is rarely 
seen. Western cattle now carry a high percentage of the blood 
of the improved beef breeds, and the heads are either naturally 
polled or have short or medium-length horns. Many prize- 
winning bulls have been bought by western cattlemen and 
turned loose upon the range, and today range cattle usually 
have the low-set, blocky form and flesh-making qualities of their 
sires. There were no cattle in America prior to its discovery; 
the old-fashioned Texas and western cattle undoubtedly sprang 
from animals which escaped from the hands of early Spanish 
explorers or were left behind when they were forced to make a 
retreat. 

The best western cattle are used for the same purposes as 




Fig. 26. Prime Baby Beeves. 

These are representatives of the famous "blue-grays" so popular in the 
British markets. They were sired by a Shorthorn bull, and their dams were 
Galloway cows. 

the best native cattle, but being largely grass-fed, they are 
more subject to shrink during shipping. All Texas and western 
range cattle are branded, and are sometimes spoken of as "branded 
cattle." As a rule, branded cattle sell at a discount because of 
the damage to the hide. In cases of brands on the body, the 
damage to the hide is estimated anywhere from five to fifteen 
cents per cwt., according to size and location, and in extreme 
cases where there is a big, sprawling side brand, covering a large 
part of the surface, the discount will be very much higher, as 
it practically spoils half the hide. 

The range country furnishes grass from the middle of July 
until the middle of November, and cattle coming to market 



112 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



from the grass of western ranges are known upon the market 
as "grass westerns." When grass gives out on western ranges, 
the cattle are sent to market. Texas cattle begin to appear in 
May and make a heavy run from that time until October, while 
other branded cattle from the West make a heavy run from 
August 1 to December 1. During the five months from Novem- 
ber until May, very few such cattle reach Chicago. 

Butcher Stock. 

Butcher stock and cutters and canners may be looked upon 
as by-products of the cattle-feeding industry. Butcher stock 
has the same relation to the fat steer class which skim milk 




Fig. 27. Old-Time Texas Long-Horn. 

Formerly a prominent feature on the large cattle markets. 

has to cream. The bulk of butcher stock is made up of fat 
cows, heifers, and bulls. They dress out from 50 to 61 per cent, 
and the carcasses are used to supply the trade in small towns, 
and the medium class of trade in cities. The grades within 
this class are: Prime, choice, good, and medium heifers; prime, 
choice, good, and medium cows; and choice, good, and medium 
bulls. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



113 



Heifers. — The same conformation, quality, and condition 
are demanded in prime heifers that have already been noted 
as characteristic of prime steers. The only noteworthy differ- 
ence is that of sex. (See Fig. 19.) Choice, good, and medium 
heifers are similar to steers of the same grades. 

Cows. — The prime grade includes a very small number 
of strictly fancy, well-bred cows, in prime condition. Choice 
cows are prime in condition, but are somewhat deficient in 
quality. Good cows lack in both condition and quality, but 
are fat enough to be reasonably good killers. Medium cows 




Fig. 28. Modern Western Range Cattle. 

These cattle were sired by purebred bulls and were fattened on grass. 
In the background appears a scales-house where cattle are weighed to the 
buyer when sold. 

are poor in form, low in condition, and deficient in quality. 
This is the lowest grade suitable for block beef. 

Bulls and stags. — There are very few choice bulls; the 
supply is made up of good beef bulls which have become too 
aged for further use as breeders. Bulls of the good grade lack 
in quality and condition. Medium bulls are thin, long legged, 
and coarse, and are just good enough to escape bologna or the 
tin can. Very few stags come to market. They are classed 
and graded the same as bulls. 



114 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Cutters and Canners. 

Cutters carry sufficient flesh to permit of the loin or rib, 
or both, being used for block purposes, the remainder of the 
carcass being canned. The cutter and canner class is made up 
mostly of old thin cows that are very paunchy, indicating a high 
percentage of offal when dressed. Many of them are cast-off 
dairy cows which are sent to market without any attempt being 
made to fatten them. They dress from 35 to 55 per cent. The 
lowest grade of canners furnishes a sort of comic supplement 




Fig. 29. Good to Choice Heifer. 

to a cattle market; marketmen refer to them as "Dairy Maids," 
"NelHes," "Hat Racks," "Skins," "Dogs," and "Sea Horses," 
thus showing their lack of appreciation for such cattle. 

Canners include thin cows, inferior steers, heifers, bulls, 
and stags, and in fact anything of a very low, inferior grade 
that is too lacking in flesh to permit of even a part of the carcass 
being sold over the butcher's block. They are also too old and 
unthrifty, and of such inferior type and breeding as to render 
them unfit for the stocker and feeder trade. They are the very 
lowest grade of cattle coming to market. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



115 



The grades within the cutter and canner class are good, 
medium, and common cutters; good, medium, and common 
canners; and bologna bulls. 



Stockers and Feeders. 

Stockers and feeders include calves, yearlings, two-year-olds, 
and older cattle. The difference between a stocker and a feeder 
is that the stocker is usually a younger and thinner steer or 
heifer, used mostly for grazing purposes and possibly fed out 
after being grazed for a time, while a feeder is usually a steer, 
older and in higher flesh than the stocker, and suitable for placing 




Fig. 30. Good Cutters. 

in the feed-lot immediately and feeding upon a grain ration. 
Heifers are not commonly classed as feeders. The grades of 
stockers and feeders are: Fancy selected, choice, good, medium, 
and common feeders; feeder bulls; fancy selected, choice, good, 
medium, and common yearling stockers; good, medium, and 
common stock heifers, and stock and feeding cows. 

Fancy selected feeders. — Very few of the fancy grade 
reach the market, as breeders fortunate enough to own thin 
steers of such quality usually hold them until finished as prime 
steers, or sell them direct to neighboring feeders at good strong 
prices. Fancy selected feeders must be uniform in size, type, 
and color, and show unmistakable signs of good breeding. They 



116 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

are practically above criticism, possessing in a high degree the 
form, quality, constitution, fleshing, and disposition of an ideal 
feeder as described in Chapter VI I. 

Choice feeders.^Steers of this grade will, under proper 
management, develop into choice and prime fat steers. They 
possess the ability to make economical gains in flesh. Choice 
feeders compared to fancy selected feeders are somewhat de- 
ficient in some one point, such as form, quality, or uniformity, 
or they are slightly deficient in several points. They must show 
evidence of good breeding, and everything considered they are ex- 
cellent cattle for feeding purposes. Most of the best feeder steers 
on the market grade as "choice" rather than as "fancy selected." 




Fig. 31. Common or Inferior Canners. 

Good feeders. — These possess in less degree the qualities 
which characterize choice and fancy selected feeders. They 
are not so thrifty, have not as good conformations, and carry 
a smaller precentage of good breeding. They are easily criti- 
cized, for they are too long of leg, too narrow across the back, 
and either too fine or too heavy in bone. Good feeders will 
finish into good fat steers, or perhaps may make the choice gravie. 

Medium feeders. — These are very much lacking in form, 
quality, and constitution, and very seldom grade higher than 
medium when fattened. Many of them are off-colored and 
spotted and bear little promise of accomplishing anything note- 
worthy on feed. Marketmen refer to such cattle as "doggy." 

Common feeders. — These are common in quality, confor- 
mation, and condition. It seldom pays to feed them. Dairy- 
type steers classify here. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 117 

Feeder bulls. — These are young bulls of good beef type. 
Both the supply and the demand are limited. 

Stockers. — Thin yearling steers are not in much demand 
as feeders so long as the supply of two-year-olds is large enough 
to satisfy feeder demands. The yearlings are mostly available 
for stocker purposes and are quoted in market reports as "year- 
ling stockers." They are such cattle as will, after a summer 
on grass and wood wintering, be suitable to put on grain feed. 
Most of the stocker trade, however, is in heifers which when 
sent to the country are used for grazing and for breeding pur- 




Fig. 32. Choice Feeder. 

poses. The better ones have considerable beef blood and good 
square frames. They are too thin to classify as butcher stock, 
and are too good in form and quality to sell at the low prices 
paid for cutters and canners. Stockers are graded on the same 
basis as feeders. 

Stock and feeding cows. — A rather common practice is 
to buy thin cows showing evidences of beef breeding, turn them 
on pasture and breed them, rough them through the winter, 
and the next season, after their calves are weaned, fatten them 
off for market, retaining the calves for feeding purposes. Such 
cows are called stock and feeding cows. 



118 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Veal Calves. 

Veal calves are a by-product of the dairy industry. Most 
of them are of dairy type and breeding, and are not profitable 
to raise for beef. The veal calves annually slaughtered in the 
United States are nearly half as many as the cattle slaughtered 
for beef, but their dressed weight is only one-tenth of the dressed 
weight of the cattle. Veal calves are dressed with the skin on, 
and a well-fattened veal dresses from 65 to 70 per cent. The 
desired type is a blocky, sleek, smooth calf, with comparatively 
small head. The neck should be thick, the brisket full, ribs 
well covered, loin wide, flanks full, rump plump and meaty, 




Fig. 33. Good Feeders. 

thighs plump, and scrotum or udder full. The skin should be 
sleek, mellow, and easily lifted. 

The most important factors determining the value of a veal 
calf are age, condition, and weight. Weight is not so important 
as age and flesh. To command the highest price, a young calf 
should carry high finish, weigh from 140 to 160 pounds, and be 
about eight weeks old. A strictly fat calf of 150 pounds at 
seven weeks of age is the sort that tops the market. Veal calves 
range in weight from 80 to 450 pounds, and in age from 5 to 20 
weeks. The grades are choice, good, medium, and common. 
Following are the requirements of the various grades as to fat- 
ness, weight, and age: 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



119 



Choice well fatted 120-160 lbs 6- 8 weeks 

Good fat 110-200 lbs 6-10 weeks 

Medium medium fat 100-240 lbs 5-12 weeks 

Common .^, . thin 80-450 lbs wide range 

Milkers and Springers. 

These are cows and heifers of dairy type and breeding 
which are sorted out of the run of cattle at the market and 
sold to dairymen. They are sold by the head, whereas all other 
classes of cattle are sold by the hundredweight. The only 
difference between a milker and a springer is that the former is 
in milk while the latter is heavy in calf and will freshen soon. 




Fig. 34. Medium Feeders. 

The springer gives evidence in her type, color, and mammary 
development that she will be a useful milk cow after calving. 
The value of this class of cattle depends partly on their age, 
and this is determined from the teeth. 

How are cattle classed and graded? — Persons who are not 
familiar with the large markets sometimes ask by what method 
the thousands of cattle arriving daily at the yards are divided 
up into the various classes and grades. To reply that cattle 
are classified according to the use made of them, while true, 
is not a satisfactory answer, for another question then arises 
as to who or what decides how they shall be used. It may be 
said that the class and grade of any particular animal or carload 
of animals on the market will be finally determined by the com- 



120 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



petition on that day's market and by the price paid; in other 
words, supply and demand largely determine the limits of each 
class. For example, certain steers received at the market are 
of a type and carry a degree of fleshing which place them at 
about the dividing line between stockers and feeders on the one 
hand and fat steers on the other. The class these steers will 
make will depend on who will bid the highest for them. If 
there is a big run of feeders that day and not many fat steers, 
the fat cattle buyers will probably bid higher for them than 
anyone else, and so they go as fat steers. If the fat steer market 
is dull and the feeder market active, they will in all probability 
be sold as feeders. 




Fig. 35. Common or Inferior Feeder. 

There is the same indefinite line of division between the 
poorest grade of butcher cows and the best grade of cutters. 
The former shade off by degrees into the latter. Cows may sell 
one day as butcher cows that would sell the next day as cutters, 
depending on the fluctuations in supply and demand. It is 
again impossible to fix absolutely the line of division between 
cutters and canners. One merges with the other. Likewise 
stockers and feeders cannot be sharply separated. Butcher 
bulls and bologna bulls furnish still another example. It is 
possible that an animal might be almost equally eligible to three 
classes. For instance, a heifer of a certain type and degree of 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



121 



flesh might at some seasons of the year, class among the poorest 
butcher heifers, the best cutters, or as a stock heifer, with the 
chances of each about even on an average market. Such a case 
is not decided until the animal is sold. If a buyer of butcher 
stuff bids the most, she will be used that way. If the cutter 
buyer for the packer gets her, she is a cutter. If she is bought 
by a commission firm for a farmer, she is a stock heifer. She 
will sell to the highest bidder on that day's market. 

Commodities such as hardware, dry goods, metals, and 
many other articles may be bought and sold in large quantities 
without examining the articles because they are standardized 
so that the buyer knows exactly what he will get. Even the 




Fig. 36. Choice Veal Calf. 

grain market has been standardized. But not so the live-stock 
market. So many factors enter into consideration in deter- 
mining the value of an animal, and these factors vary so much, 
that live stock must be bought and sold in the presence of the 
parties concerned in the transaction, or their agents. The men 
engaged in buying and selling on any market differ considerably 
in their opinions as to the exact requirements of the various 
classes and especially of the various grades in each class. They 
usually agree very closely on the price, yet one prominent buyer 
may call a certain fat steer a typical "choice" steer, and another 
equally well-qualified buyer may call him a typical "good" steer. 
This difference of opinion is largely explained by the fact that 



122 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

they are accustomed to express values in terms of dollars and 
cents rather than in the grade names used in reporting the mar- 
kets in the newspapers. There is no close agi'eement on the 
exact application of these terms. Even the reporters for the 
papers are not themselves agreed on the application of many 
terms they use. 

Between one market and another there are still other dif- 
ferences in the application of terms. The best fat steers of a 
certain market will be quoted as prime steers in the daily reports 
of that market as given in the newspapers, yet these same steers 
on some other large market where a better class of cattle are 
regularly received would never be called better than choice 
steers. Admittedly there is opportunity for, and need of, greater 
uniformity in the use and meaning of market terms, yet the mar- 
ket classifications as they now exist at various markets, with 
all their inaccuracies and lack of uniformity, serve a valuable 
purpose. They furnish at least some sort of a "handle" to the 
market. Without them it would be next to impossible to report 
the markets to country stock buyers, stockmen, and farmers. 
For example, the term "canner cow" has come to have a pretty 
generally accepted meaning. So has "fat steer," "veal calf," 
"feeder steer," and many other class names, but the require- 
ments of the various grades within each class are far from being 
definitely agreed upon by various individuals, and various 
markets. 

Cattle Prices at Chicago. 

Chicago prices during 1918. — The average price for fat 
steers on the Chicago market* during 1918 at $14.65 stood as 
a new record in that market. Butcher stock reached a new 
record average at $9,50, and the same was true of grass western 
steers at $14.40, cutters and canners at $7.25, veal calves at 
$15.75, and stockers and feeders at $10.25. The lowest and 
highest prices paid at Chicago for the various classes of cattle 
in 1918 were as follows: Fat steers, $9.00-$20,50; western 
range steers, $7.25-$18.50; western cows and heifers, $4.85- 
$14.50; fat native cows and heifers, $5.50-$18.00; native bulls, 
$5,50-$16.00; cutters and canners, $3.50-$8,35; stockers and 
feeders, $5.50-$14.50; and veal calves, $4.25-$19.75. 



Year Book of Figures, 1919. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



123 



Market values of the various classes. — In determining the 
comparative market values of the various market classes, aver- 
ages for one year are not sufficient as a basis for comparison. 
The following table gives the yearly average prices at Chicago 
for the several market classes from 1909 to 1918, and also the 
averages for the entire ten-year period: 





Fat Steers 


West'n Range 


•a 

a 

!^ 

oj 


T3 


T3 

s 


n 


Year 


s . 

O M 


o 
o 

M . 

o 


TO . 

2a 

o 


o 
o 
^ . 

6a 

CO 


o 
o 

g 


o 
o 




•a 


> 

73 


1909 


$5.40 


$0.90 


$6.30 


$6.90 


$7.30 


$6.3£ 


$5.25 


$4.10 


$4.2f 


1)2.75 


$4.50 


$7.10 


1910 


5.90 


6.40 


6.95 


7.35 


7.70 


6.8C 


5.40 


4.20 


4.6C 


3.10 


4.85 


8.10 


1911 


5.65 


6.00 


6.50 


6.75 


7.00 


6.4C 


6.65 


5.00 


4.35 


2.85 


4.75 


7.60 


1912 


7.10 


7.35 


8.10 


8.80 


9.60 


7.75 


7.60 


6.10 


5.25 


3.40 


5.70 


8.75 


1913 


8.00 


8.10 


8.30 


8.65 


8.85 


8.25 


7.40 


6.05 


6. 10 


4.25 


7.05 


10.10 


1914 


8.10 


8.30 


8.70 


8.95 


9.75 


8.65 


7.65 


6.40 


6.55 


4.60 


7.35 


9.90 


1915 


7.70 


8.05 


8.55 


8.75 


9.25 


8.40 


7.75 


6.00 


6.10 


4.25 


* 


10.15 


1916 


8.45 


8.85 


9.40 


10.25 


10.75 


9.50 


8.40 


6.25 


6.75 


4.80 


7.20 


10.85 


1917 


10.50 


11.50 


12.30 


13.05 


13.75 


11.60 


10.60 


9.00 


8.25 


6.25 


8.40 


13.75 


1918 


13.25 


14.40 


15.00 


15.90 


16.50 


14.65 


14.40 


10.15 


9.50 


7.25 


10.25 


15.75 


lO-yr. 
ave. 


8.00 


8.50 


9.00 


9.55 


10.05 


8.85 


8.1C 


6.35 


6.15 


4.35 


6.65 


10.20 



* No outlet, due to outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease and quarantine of the yards. 



From the standpoint of averages, it will be observed that 
the price of a fat steer bears a constant relation to his weight, 
the heavier the steer, the higher the price per cwt. This is 
due to the fact that as a steer becomes older he fattens more 
easily; and in dealing with groups of very large numbers of fat 
steers of different weights, all factors determining value are 
equalized except the factor of fatness. Between the average 
prices of 900-pound and 1,125-pound fat steers, there is a differ- 
ence of 50 cents per cwt.; between 1,125-pound and 1,275-pound 
steers, the difference is also 50 cents; between 1,275 and 1,425 
pounds, it is 55 cents; and between 1,425 and 1600 pounds, 
it is 50 cents. The sum of all these differences is $2.05, 
which is the difference between the average prices of the lightest 
and heaviest groups of fat steers. All fat steers together sell 
75 cents higher than western range steers, and $2.70 higher 
than butcher stock. Between stockers and feeders and fat 
steers, there exists a margin of $2.20 based on the Chicago fig- 
ures. Butcher stock sell $1.80 higher than cutters and canners. 
Veal calves bring the highest price of any class, exceeding the 
price of fat steers by $1.35. 



124 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Highest and lowest monthly prices. — It is true of Chicago 
and of the six leading cattle markets that beef steers are usually 
highest in price in late August or early September. They are 
usually lowest about the last of January or first of February. 
The fewest receipts occur in April and the most in October. 

Highest prices for stockers and feeders are made in April 
and May, which mark the opening of the pasture season. Low- 
est prices occur in October, November, December, and January, 
January being the lowest. The movement of stockers and 
feeders is greatest in October, November, September, December, 
and August, and smallest in May. 

Fat cows and heifers sell highest in May, and lowest in 
December and January. 

Cutter and canner prices exhibit no marked high and low 
spots, and the high points in prices are the most irregular in 
occurrence of any class of cattle. 

Largest receipts of veal calves arrive from March to May. 
Highest prices are made in September and lowest prices in April. 
One reason for the low price in April is that a large majority of 
spring calves are too small to yield high-class veal. 



CHAPTER IX. 

BREEDING FOR THE MARKET. 

There were 67,866,000 cattle on farms in the United States 
in 1919. Of this number, 23,467,000 were dairy cattle and the 
remaining 44,399,000 were reported as "other cattle." The 
average value of dairy cows was given as $78.24, and of "other 
cattle," $44.16. The leading states in numbers of cattle other 
than dairy animals on farms were as follows: 

1. Texas 3,961,000 6. California 1,650,000 

2. Nebraska 2,940,000 7. Minnesota 1,632,000 

3. Iowa 2,861,000 8. South Dakota 1,496,000 

4. Kansas 2,401,000 9. Oklahoma 1,444,000 

5. Missouri 1,782,000 10. Wisconsin 1,436,000 

The distribution by geographical divisions was as follows; 

North Atlantic 2,337,000 

South Atlantic 3,390,000 

North Central, East of Mississippi River 5,414,000 

North Central, West of Mississippi River 13,724,000 

South Central 9,518,000 

Far Western 10,016,000 



Total United States 44,399,000 

In the United States the cattle slaughtered in 1910 were 
42 per cent, of the stock of cows on hand. The slaughtered 
calves as related to the stock of cows on hand were 20.3 per cent. 
For cattle and calf slaughter combined, the ratio to the number 
of cows was 62.3 per cent. An average of 249 pounds of beef, 
including veal, was produced during the year per head of stock 
cows. If veal is excluded, the ratio of beef to stock of cows was 
228 pounds. The veal production was 21 pounds per stock cow. 

Market cattle are bred on the farms of the East and Central 
West, and also upon the large ranches of the West and South- 
west. A national shortage of beef cattle, together with a world 
shortage, has served to elevate beef prices, and the breeding of 
beef cattle for the rnarket has become increasingly attractive 
both in the cornbelt and on the range. The first live-stock 
census was taken in 1840, at which time the number of cattle, 
excluding calves, to each inhabitant was .88 of an animal. It 
was .81 of an animal in 1860, .72 in 1880, .82 in 1890, .89 in 1900, 
and .71 in 1910. By the use of better and better animals for 

125 



126 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

breeding purposes, however, the average value of all our domestic 
animals has been constantly increased, so that loss in numbers 
has been partially equalized by increase in quality. 

In partial explanation of the decline of beef cattle in this 
country since 1900, it may be said that, in the cornbelt, cattle 
breeding has largely changed to cattle feeding since thirty years 
ago. Range and ranch began to supply feeders cheaper than 
they could be raised on the farm. But limitations to the pro- 
duction of feeders began to appear. In the West, decline in 
production of feeders was caused by the enforcement of the no- 
fence law on the public land, by homesteading, and by dry 
farming, while in the cornbelt the raising of steers for feeding 
declined because of increase in dairying,; increased cost of stockers 
and feeders, and in neglect to feed roughage. 

As the supply of feeders from western ranges and ranches 
is certain to become more and more limited, there never was a 
better time for the cornbelt farmer to engage in the business of 
beef production; the time is ripe for the man who wants to breed 
as well as feed cattle for the market. 

In Iowa during 1911-1912, 24 farms produced 816 calves 
and fed them out as baby beeves at a profit of $7.00 per head. 
The cost of keeping the cow a year, the cost of feeds at full mar- 
ket prices, and the interest on the investment were all figured in. 
In 1912-1913, 36 farms bred, fed, and sold 983 calves at an 
average weight of 876 pounds. The average age of these calves 
was 16 months. They sold at $8.60 per cwt., or $75.30 per 
head. The cost per head was $59.20; this left a profit of $16.10 
per head. A comparison of crop yields during five years on ten 
beef cattle farms in ten counties in Iowa, and on ten grain farms 
in the same neighborhoods showed that the cattle farms averaged 
14 bu. more corn per acre, 7 bu. more oats, and 1 ton more hay. 
Baby beef production has the following advantages: 1. There 
is money in the business at present and prospective prices. 

2. It pays better than average market prices for farm crops. 

3. It makes use of rough lands otherwise wasted. 4. It helps 
to maintain soil fertility. 5. Helps solve the labor problem. 

When breeding for beef, the producer must use good cattle 
of the beef type. Attention must be given to the selection of 
both the cows and the bulls, and an effort must be made to 
breed for market what the market wants and will pay for in 
amount sufficient to return a profit. In some years, feeders 
of cattle find it more profitable to buy rather a low grade of 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 127 

cattle for feeding purposes, although as a general rule, it pays 
best to feed high-class cattle that will sell at the top of the mar- 
ket, or near the top, when finished. Breeders of cattle are 
confronted with no such problem as to what to aim for in breed- 
ing; they should always try to breed the best. Breeding herds 
are not so easily or quickly changed to suit fluctuations in market 
demands as are cattle in the feeder's hands; hence, breeders 
abide by the general rule that greatest returns come from the 
production of the highest grade of cattle. 

When the object of the breeder is to produce calves to be 
fed for the market, the cows in the herd are purebred only in 
rare instances. Purebred cattle are not so numerous as to per- 
mit their widespread use, and it is impracticable to advise that 
purebred cows shall constitute the common herds of the country, 
nor would it be possible to bring about that condition for many 
years to come. By all means, however, the cows in such herds 
should be high grades of some one of the beef breeds. 

At this point some definition of terms is necessary. A 
purebred animal is a member of some breed, and is registered 
or eligible to registry in the herd book of that breed. Second, 
it is an animal possessing a distinctive and useful type. Third, 
it is descended from a long line of ancestors specially selected 
by the men who founded and developed that breed, these ances- 
tors being of the same type as itself, which fact explains why 
the animal may be termed a purebred. Fourth, being backed 
up by an ancestry of useful animals like itself, it has the power 
to reproduce this useful type in its offspring, this power or ability 
being called prepotency. As it is a rule of breeding that what 
goes into an animal from its ancestors will come out in its off- 
spring, we at once realize the purebred's power for good when 
used as a breeder. The terms "full blood" and "thorough- 
bred" are often erroneously used in place of the word purebred. 

A cross-bred animal is one whose sire and dam were both 
purebred, but belonged to different breeds. A cross between 
a Shorthorn bull and a Hereford cow, for example, produces a 
cross-bred calf. 

A scrub animal is one that bears no evidence of good breed- 
ing — one without any purebred ancestors, or, at most, very few 
and very distant ones. Its ancestors were a miscellaneous lot, 
of all shapes, sizes, colors, and sorts, few if any of which were 
useful animals. Hence, scrub animals are usually of indeter- 
minate type and little value. 



128 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

When a scrub female is mated with a purebred male, the 
offspring is called a grade. If this grade animal is in turn mated 
with a purebred of the same breed as its own purebred parent, 
or with one of some other breed, the result will still be a grade. 
When three or more crosses have been made upon a scrub founda- 
tion by sires from the same breed, the resulting offspring will 
possess 87.5 per cent, or more of purebred ancestry and may be 
referred to as high grades. 

Returning to the point under discussion, cows in market 
beef breeding herds should be high grades, preferably with all 
the purebred ancestors members of the same breed. From 
this breed also, a purebred bull should be selected to mate with 
the cows, thus insuring a uniform lot of calves for feeding. The 
herd bull should be selected with great care. It is often said 
that the "bull is half the herd," and some one has added the 
equally true statement that "an inferior bull is all of the herd." 
In breeding all kinds of farm live stock we expect the offspring 
to be better than the dam, and we rely upon the sire to bring 
about this improvement. In breeding beef cattle for the market, 
it is well to have good cows, but it is an absolute essential to 
have a good bull. We pin our hopes on him. He must be a 
good individual, he must be purebred, and he should come 
from a good line of ancestry. These three points are guarantees 
as to his breeding ability. No progress whatever will be made 
by using other than a purebred bull and continuing in the same 
breed when future herd-headers are selected. The grading-up 
process must be continued, and where this has been done through 
a number of generations, herds will be found that are, for all 
intents and purposes, purebred so far as production for the 
market is concerned. 

One of the most notable examples of the value of purebred 
bulls as herd improvers is that afforded by the history of cattle 
breeding on western ranges. Beginning with the old Texas 
long-horn stock which formed the foundation of range herds, 
successive crosses of purebred sires brought remarkable im- 
provement in the beef-making qualities of western cattle. (See 
Figs. 27 and 28 in preceding chapter.) 

As to what price the breeder is justified in paying for a 
bull, that will vary depending upon the conditions. Some very 
satisfactory bulls have been bought at very moderate prices. 
In grading up western range cattle, high-priced, prize-winning 
bulls have been purchased in a number of instances and the 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



129 



bull turned out on the range as his pedigree burned in the office 
stove. If a full quota of cows is at hand for breeding, not less 
than $150 should be invested in a bull, and more often it will 
be advisable to pay $200, $250, or more, rather than $150. A 
small increase in the value per head of one season's crop of calves 
by the use of the higher-priced bull, as compared with the cheap 
one, will return the difference in the price of the two animals. 
Furthermore, when the heifer calves by the higher-priced sire 
are gone over with a view to keeping out certain ones for use 
in the breeding herd, there will result a herd of higher average 
merit than otherwise, and improvement thereafter will be doubly 
fast. The man who sees no further than first cost when pur- 
chasing a bull is surely doomed to failure. As to which breed 
of beef cattle to use for market production, that is a matter to 
be decided somewhat by the conditions, but it is largely a matter 
of personal preference. Each breed has its own special advan- 
tages, and there is no best breed of beef cattle. 

The following table* gives the averages by states of an- 
swers made by western stockmen in 1915 to the questions indi- 
cated by the headings of the various columns in the table. This 
table furnishes ample proof of the fact that the average value of 
the live stock of a community is in direct proportion to the value 
of the sires used. "A stream can rise no higher than its source." 



State 



Ariz. . 

Cal. . 

Col. . 

Idaho 

Mont. 

Nev . . 

N. M 

Ore. 

Utah. 

Wash 

Wyo. 



Average 


no. of bulls 


per 100 cows 


6.00 


3.73 


4.16 


4.00 


3.44 


4.00 


5.00 


4.04 


4.00 


3.72 


5.52 



Average 

value 

of bulls 



$82.00 

94.75 

131.90 

100.00 

138.00 

93.00 

83.00 

113.35 

93.00 

124.15 

160.50 



Average 
no. of calves 
per 100 cows 



57.00 
73.55 
69.30 
75.00 
75.80 
70.00 
66.00 
75.74 
69.00 
79.48 
73.20 



Average weight of 
steers sold from 
range or pasture 



Long 2-yr.- Long 3-yr.- 
old old 



774.0 
968.2 
883.0 

1000.0 
991.0 
940.0 
725.0 
975.7 
900.0 

1032.0 
937.0 



935.0 
1141.6 
1084.5 
1200.0 
1211.0 
1140.0 

934.0 
1186.0 
1085.0 
1225.0 
1155.0 



Arizona and New Mexico use the most bulls and the cheap- 
est bulls. These states are credited with the fewest calves and 
the steers produced are markedly inferior in weight at two and 



* Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. Report 110, by W. 
J. T. Jardine. 



C. Barnes and 



130 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

three years of age. Such factors as chmate, feed supply, and 
method of management affect the character and value of cattle 
produced on the range, yet the predominating factor, as shown 
by the above table, is that of good breeding. Those states 
rank highest which use the best breeding stock. The importance 
of good breeding is again shown by the fact that in Arizona 
and New Mexico the more progressive stockmen have spent 
large sums in purchasing good bulls and this has resulted in a 
decided improvement in the grade of stock on the public ranges 
in those states within the last few years. On the other hand, 
many of the smaller men either turn out scrubs or else have no 
bulls at all, and this keeps down the averages. 

The producer of feeding cattle secures his bulls from breeders 
who maintain herds of purebred and registered beef cattle. 
These are the sources of all that is good in beef cattle, their 
function being to produce sires to be used to grade up the common 
cattle of the country. Hence a knowledge of market require- 
ments is very essential to the breeder of pedigreed beef cattle, 
for he is engaged, indirectly, but most certainly, in the produc- 
tion of cattle for the open market. The breeder of registered 
cattle who ignores the requirements of the open market will 
never be able to build up an active demand for his stock, because 
the mere fact that an animal is purebred and registered does not 
suffice. Buyers usually insist that a thoroughly useful animal 
shall accompany the pedigree, and the inferior animal, no matter 
how glowing his family history, does not receive serious atten- 
tion or approval. 

Fancy, purebred, registered beef cows and bulls frequently 
sell for $1,000 or more, and wonder is sometimes expressed that 
a bull or cow can command such a price. Only when it is under- 
stood that the sons and daughters of these high-priced animals 
will not be sold to the butcher, but will be used as breeding 
animals in herds that produce cattle for the butcher, is it real- 
ized that such prices do not necessarily represent a foolish waste 
of money. It may be several years before many descendants 
of such an animal reach the market, they being multiplied in 
the meantime, but when the market finally feels the good influ- 
ence of such an animal, the benefits usually more than justify 
the price of the original bull or cow. 

In selecting beef animals for breeding purposes, the breeder 
must not only emphasize those points which are important to 
the feeder and butcher, but must keep in mind his own interests 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 131 

as well. The features which are of particular interest to the 
breeder are: 1. The possession of a good constitution. 2. 
Thick natural flesh. 3. Quick maturity. The first of these 
is also of much importance to the feeder, the second interests 
all parties concerned with beef cattle, and the third interests 
both the breeder and feeder. Constitution is of the greatest 
importance, for it guarantees thrift and vigorous reproduction. 
It is the cornerstone of the successful herd. By thick natural 
flesh is meant a full muscular development such as will expand 
into a maximum fleshing when the animal is fattened. Quick 
maturity makes possible a finish at an early age, and this prime 
essential in present-day beef production is characteristic of cattle 
that have the blocky, compact, low-set type. Long bodied, 
long legged animals attain large size, but are difficult to fatten 
before they are mature, and they mature late. 

When cattle intended for breeders are in high condition, 
the standards for weights at various ages are as follows: 

Weights of Weights of 

Months bulls cows 

6 600 500 

12 1075 750 

18 1275 975 

24 1500 1150 

30 1800 1350 

36 1975 1475 

42 2100 1550 

The above figures are for purebred bulls and high-grade 
cows such as should be used in market beef breeding herds. 
The weights given for bulls thus represent higher standards 
than those for the cows. The difference in the matured weights 
of the two sexes as given above, while largely due to sex, is due 
in part to higher average merit in the bulls than in the cows. 

The beef bull. — In general appearance the beef bull is 
identical with the steer, being wide, deep, compact, and low set. 
When in use as breeders, bulls are seldom kept in high condition, 
hence in studying the form certain allowances should be made 
for lack of fatness, as this has much to do with the appearance 
of blockiness and massiveness presented by the animal. The 
bull should have plenty of size and we should not demand the 
same degree of refinement in bone that is desired in the steer, 
yet quality should be easily apparent. The hide should roll 
up mellow and loose in the hand, showing medium thickness, 
and the hair should be soft and fine. Even when in a medium- 



132 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

fat condition, the fleshing should be abundant and smooth. 
The head should be clean-cut, wide, and short, but larger than 
the steer's, with heavier horns, and a more burly appearance 
generally. The eye shows more animation or spirit, and a 
more resolute expression. Such a head is indicative of mas- 
culinity which is insisted upon by all breeders, it being an evi- 
dence of potency or breeding capacity. The bull at maturity 
should show a powerfully muscled neck with a pronounced arch 
or crest, this also indicating masculinity. The crest should 
come forward close to the head, and the neck should be short. 




Fig. 37. Correct Type in the Beef Sire. 

Erwin C, Champion Aberdeen-Angus bull at the 1913 International, 
owned by Mr. W. A. McHenry, Denison, la. 



Masculinity is again shown in the shoulders by a heavier, more 
massive development than is found in the steer, yet this does 
not excuse a rough, prominent shoulder such as would b6 trouble- 
some in the offspring when they are fed for market. 

The entire front of the bull is well developed and massive, 
a condition which is inherited by domesticated bulls from their 
wild ancestors. In the wild state, a bull became the head of 
the herd only by right of conquest, and his burly head, heavy 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 133 

horns, muscular neck, and massive front were needed to defeat 
his male rivals, and to protect the herd from its enemies after 
he had gained leadership. It was a survival of the fittest, which 
is nature's method of improving the wild animals. Under domes- 
tication, the masculine characters have not the same values as 
in the wild state, yet they are none the less valuable, because 
they indicate a rugged, vigorous, and potent animal — qualities 
highly prized by any breeder. A wide, deep chest and full 
middle insure a good constitution. The middle is identical in 
form with the middle of the steer, but more emphasis is placed 
upon straightness and strength of back. The hips should be 
smooth, and the hindquarters should be long, level, wide, and 
heavily fleshed. 

Great variation will be found in the manner in which bulls 
walk, some doing it awkwardly and clumsily, with the back 
humped to a marked degree, and with the legs sprawling; others 
are active in their movements, keeping their legs under them, 
and carrying themselves with little apparent effort, the latter 
of course being much preferred. Style has market value in a 
bull as in a steer, and between an animal that stands and walks 
gracefully, and one that slouches, other things being equal, the 
former will sell much more readily if they are priced the same, 
and his calves will more quickly attract buyers when they reach 
the market. Before purchasing a bull, the cows in the herd 
should be carefully studied and their weaknesses noted, so that 
a bull may be selected that is strong in the points where the 
cows show weakness. 

A beef bull, well developed at a year old, may serve a few 
cows, but should as a rule be eighteen months old. An ordinarily 
vigorous mature bull will get 100 calves a year if the cows come 
to him at proper intervals, but when they are nearly all bred 
in the spring and in the fall probably 60 is about the usual limit. 

The beef breeding cow or heifer. — Cows reach maturity 
quicker than bulls, but do not attain as much size or weight. 
They show more refinement at all points than do males, but 
in form and fleshing are nearly identical with all good beef 
animals regardless of sex. In selecting cows, emphasis is placed 
upon constitution, thick natural flesh, quick maturity, and 
feminine character. The head shows marked refinement, and 
there is a calm expression of the eye, showing a much milder 
disposition than the bull. As compared with steers, the horns 
are less developed, and the neck is not so thick and perhaps 



134 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



not quite so short. The shoulders are well laid in and smooth, 
and throughout the forequarters there is an absence of the great 
strength and massiveness found in the bull. The refinement 
of the cow's head, neck, and shoulders is an evidence of femininity, 
which, like masculinity in the male, is evidence of breeding 
capacity. ''Motherly" looking cows, not too compact in form, 
are wanted. A coarse, "steery" headed female is seldom a suc- 
cessful breeder. Although she may produce a calf each year, her 
stock is not likely to possess the high qualities that one expects. 




Fig. 38. Correct Type in the Beef Cow. 

Fair Start 2d., a famous Shorthorn show cow, owned by Mr. George 
J. Sayer, McHenry, 111. 

A straight, strong back and wide, deep middle are as desir- 
able in the cow as in the bull or steer, indeed even more so, as 
a capacious middle provides ample room for carrying the calf. 
Cows should be a little longer in the middle, a little less compact 
in other words, than steers and bulls. The hips are notably 
different, showing more width and prominence, and this feature 
is often so pronounced as to cause criticism. While a wider hip 
is accepted in cows than in other beef animals, nevertheless care 
should be taken to guard against undue prominence. Cows are 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 135 

also usually shorter and rougher in the rump than bulls, but the 
rump should be as long, level, wide, and smoothly fleshed as possible. 

So far as condition is concerned, it must be remembered 
that the breeding cow is more valuable on account of the progeny 
she produces than on account of her own excellence as an animal 
suitable for slaughter, hence we do not fault her if she lacks in 
fatness, provided her constitution, form, and quality are good. 
However, the beef cow must possess the ability to fatten readily 
when put on heavy feed, for "like produces like," and if the cow 
will not take on flesh readily, then we cannot expect her calves 
to be profitable in the feed-lot. It is on this account that beef 
breeding bulls and cows are shown in heavy flesh in the show 
ring, thus indicating their capacity as beef producers. Beef 
cows are sometimes made so fat for showing that their usefulness 
as breeders is injured by a heavy deposit of fat about the genera- 
tive organs. The practice has, therefore, been severely criti- 
cized, yet the danger is not great if the feeding is carefully 
managed, and the advantages so far outweigh the disadvantages 
that the showing of breeding animals in high condition seems 
destined to continue. 

In the show ring, little or no attention is paid to the udder 
of the beef cow, but the man who breeds beef cattle cannot 
ignore the cow's milk-producing qualities. The udder should 
be of good size and shape, with well-placed teats, and the cow 
should be able to furnish ample milk for her calf during at least 
the first six months of lactation. E. S. Bayard, a breeder of 
beef cattle and Editor of the National Stockman and Farmer, 
has the following to say regarding the selection of beef cows 
and the importance of good mflking qualities*— "Good-sized, 
roomy, robust cows; with breadth but not coarseness; big of 
barrel, loose of hide, short of leg, neat of head, mild of manner, 
placid of countenance, with a decidedly feminine expression, 
are the kind. Cows that are good milkers, as a rule, are good 
and regular breeders — they do not get too fat to breed. Her 
calf is started well, is kept going, and develops rapidly, for there 
is no feed for a calf or any other animal that will take the place 
of mother's milk. The cows which milk most and lose flesh 
most rapidly when suckling calves are the quickest-fleshing 
cows. They milk down rapidly and they recover flesh quickly 
when relieved of the strain of milk production. This character- 



Penn. Dept. Agr. Bui. 235. 



136 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



istic of quick fleshing usually accompanies good milking, but 
not persistent milking of course. Beef -bred cows are not, as a 
rule, all-the-year milkers, nor is it desirable that they should be. 
Milk enough is vital to success, and breeders of beef cattle can- 
not afford to neglect it any more than they can afford to make 
it a leading object of their breeding. So get lady cows, femi- 
nine type, with good udders, and they can be found in all the 
beef breeds. Let the steery cow alone as you would the bull 
that lacks masculinity." 

The cows which raise good calves should be retained in the 
herd as long as they are useful, and those which fail to produce 






-^gj^^^^Jjtt 




Fig. 39. An Excellent Breeding Cow. 

Blackbird Perfection 2d., Aberdeen-Angus cow owned by Iowa State 
College. Beefy throughout, yet not milkless. She has good udder develop- 
ment and can raise her calf. 

good offspring should be sent to the butcher no matter how 
attractive they may be individually. The attractive fat cow 
that gives no milk and raises a small, scrawny calf is not worthy 
of a place in the herd, whereas some of the good mothers may 
nurse down pretty thin and look rather unattractive after they 
have suckled their calves, for a time. When a cattle breeder 
designates his plainest-looking cows as the best producers in his 
herd, he is often fully justified in doing so. Save those that 
are best by test, and replace the unprofitable cows with the 
best of the crop of heifers. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 137 

In many instances, heifers are bred at 15 to 18 months old, 
but it is better practice to begin breeding them at about 21 
months so that they drop their first calves at about 30 months. 
The period of gestation often varies from 274 to 287 days, and 
the average is about 280 days. 

Value of records. — The possibilities for better agriculture 
through the application of business methods to farming are 
very great, and this is especially true of live-stock farming. 
The feeder ought to weigh his cattle regularly, and keep careful 
and complete records of the weights and of all items of expense 
incurred in finishing and marketing, so that he may know whether 
his cattle return him a profit or were fed at a loss. In either 
case, the records are available for study, and when the next lot 
is fed, comparisons may be made and benefits derived from past 
experiences. This is all the more important in the case of feeders 
who breed their own calves, for then such records are doubly 
valuable as they greatly assist in determining the producing 
qualities of the various animals in the breeding herd. If the 
breeder has records showing the gains made, the cost of the gains, 
the market prices received, and the dressing percentages of 
various calves from various cows and by various bulls, he has 
the best possible measure of the worth of his herd bull and his 
breeding cows. If such records are complete they permit com- 
parisons of one cow with another and one bull with another, 
thus indicating what animals should be retained as breeders and 
what ones discarded. If the breeder has a chance to see the 
carcasses yielded by fat cattle of his own breeding, he should 
most certainly avail himself of it and talk with some well-quali- 
fied butcher regarding their merits and faults. By such pro- 
gressive methods will the breeder forge ahead and obtain the 
maximum profit and satisfaction from his business. 

In conclusion, there is good opportunity for profit in beef 
production, and the soil needs the fertility which comes from 
the keeping of live stock. The factors necessary to insure 
success in beef production are (1) good blue-grass pastures, 
(2) better care of pastures, (3) utilization of corn stalks through 
the use of a silo — build a silo, (4) the growing and feeding of 
alfalfa, (5) keeping the best heifer calves for breeding purposes, 
(6) buying only good, purebred, beef bulls to mate with them, 
and (7) staying by beef production year in and year out, making 
it a permanent part of farming operations. 



CHAPTER X. 

DAIRY TYPE. 

Dairy animals that are correct in type present a marked 
contrast to beef animals. The body and back are longer and 
much narrower, the thighs are thin, the neck longer and more 
slender, and in all parts the animal is lean and angular, whereas 
the beef animal is thick-fleshed and smooth. The dairy animal 
should present a muscular appearance, without being at all 
beefy, but should not be so low in flesh as to present an emaciated 
appearance. Both males and females are rather sharp at the 
withers, deep ribbed, fairly short of leg, and are well divided 
between the hind legs. There should be no bulge to the thigh, 
and no tendency toward the development of what is called the 
twist in beef cattle. There is a limit to an animal's feeding and 
digestive capacity, hence one animal cannot produce both beef 
and milk in maximum quantities. Breeders of dairy cattle 
want the dairy cow to do one thing only; they discriminate 
against beefiness just as sharply as they favor evidences of 
large milking capacity. 

The Dairy Cow. 

Dairy cows may be judged by two distinct methods. One 
method consists of keeping records of the cow's production, 
including the duration of the lactation periods, the pounds of 
milk given at each milking, and the results of the Babcock tests 
for butter-fat. Records may also be kept of the quantities 
of feed consumed and the cost of the feed-stuffs used, so that 
at the end of each year an accounting may be made with each 
cow, and her profitableness or unprofitableness accurately 
determined. This method gets right at the cow's producing 
capacity and removes all doubt concerning her right to a place 
in a producing herd. It is also much used in estimating a cow's 
value for breeding purposes. This method may be called judg- 
ing by performance. 

Breeders of dairy cattle have an advantage over breeders 
of beef cattle, it being difficult for the latter to obtain complete 
records of performance. A slaughter test fully reveals a beef 

138 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



139 



animal's capacity as a meat producer, and records of the cost 
of feed and labor may be as easily kept as for dairy animals, 
but after the beef animal has demonstrated its value on the 
block it is no longer available for breeding purposes. However, 
calves by a certain bull or from a certain cow may be slaughtered 
and records made which will help to reveal the worth of that 
particular bull or cow; but this is much more troublesome and 
expensive than the testing of dairy cows, and the resulting records 
are more meager and less significant. Beef producers must rely 
upon the hand and eye in valuing their cattle, and upon such 
records as the gains made, costs of gains, prices received for 
animals sent to market, and the dressing percentages. 




Fig. 40. Points of ttie Dairy Cow. 



1. 


Muzzle 


9. 


Neck 


17. 


Ribs 


25. 


Thigh 


2. 


Face 


10. 


Throat 


18. 


Back 


26. 


Hind leg 


3. 


Eye 


11. 


Dewlap 


19. 


Loin 


27. 


Udder 


4. 


Forehead 


12. 


Brisket 


20. 


Barrel 


28. 


Teats 


5. 


Ear 


13. 


Shoulder 


21. 


Hip or hook 


29. 


Milk-vein 


6. 


Poll 


14. 


Withers 


22. 


Rump 


30. 


Milk-well 


7. 


Cheek 


15. 


Fore leg 


23.' 


Pin bones 


31. 


Navel 


S. 


Jaw 


16. 


Fore-rib 


24. 


Tail 







The other method of judging dairy cows consists of a de- 
tailed study of the animal, and an examination for certain char- 
acteristics which are evidences of milk-producing capacity. If 
the fifty highest-producing dairy cows in the United States 
were assembled so that comparisons might easily be made, 
considerable variation would be found among them in form, 
quality, udder, and other points. Yet through all these cows 



140 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

would run certain well-defined characteristics which dairymen 
have come to know are associated with heavy production. These 
characteristics may be causes of the heavy yield, or merely 
incidental correlates, but in either case they are evidences of 
productive capacity, and are valuable aids in judging dairy 
cows. Many dairymen keep no records of the production in 
their herds, and rely solely upon an examination of the individ- 
uality when additional cows are purchased. There are other 
men who ridicule the idea of judging a cow by any other means 
than records of her performance; they will tell you of cows 
which score high but are poor yielders, and of other cows which 
score low but are big producers. However, such instances are 
exceptional and should not dislodge one's faith in the value of 
studying the individuality of dairy cows. No doubt it is wrong 
to rely solely upon either method of judging, for the two methods 
may be combined to the advantage of each, and in this way the 
best estimate of the value of a dairy cow is made. 

The form of the high-class dairy cow is that of a triple- 
wedge. One wedge is apparent from a side view; the cow is 
much deeper behind than in front, so that if the top line and 
underline were continued on forward they would meet at a point 
not far in front of the animal. The second wedge is formed 
by a widening from breast to hindquarters, so that the side lines 
rapidly converge if they are carried out in front of the cow. 
These two wedges are sometimes secured, in part at least, by a 
lack of width and depth in the chest, whereas they should result 
solely because of much width and depth of barrel, thus giving 
the needed digestive capacity. Although the wedge form is 
characteristic of the dairy cow, it is not valuable in itself, and 
the mere fact that a cow has it is not sufficient. The examination 
should go deeper; the wedges should be analyzed and their causes 
determined. The third wedge is formed by the shoulders and 
withers; the withers constitute the point of the wedge, and 
the shoulders widen out below to provide the necessary chest 
capacity. This wedge insures against coarseness at the withers 
and heavy fleshing on the shoulders. The general form of the 
cow is very angular throughout, due to a well-developed frame 
and the presence of but little flesh to give smoothness to the 
parts. Some allowance, however, must be made for sex and 
age; we naturally expect more fleshing in the bull than in the 
cow in milk, and the same is true of young heifers before their 
first calving, and also of dry cows. Some dairymen make an 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



141 



effort to fatten dry cows, for the added body fat is resorbed and 
converted into butter-fat when the cow again comes in milk, 
thus temporarily raising the percentage of butter-fat above the 
normal. These features, however, do not excuse any persistent 
beefy tendency in dairy animals, it being distinctly objectionable. 
The head of the dairy cow should be lean, and have a broad 
muzzle, large nostrils, and a dished face. Compared with the 
head of the beef animal, there is less width and more length, 
the proportions of the head being described as medium long 
and medium broad. The eyes should be prominent, bright, 
calm, and wide apart, and the forehead should be fairly wide. 
The jaws should be strong, and the cheeks well muscled. The 




Fig. 41. A Dairy Cow with Utility Points Emphasized. 

Holstein-Friesian cow, Chloe Artis Jewel. Correct form, strong con- 
stitution, large feeding capacity, good quality, good dairy temperament, 
and exceptional mammary development are all evident in this cow. Note 
especially her wonderful mammary veins. Owned by Mr. C. A. Nelson, 
Waverly, la. 

ears should be fine in texture, and of medium size. The horns 
should be fine and have a curve that adds to, rather than detracts 
from, the appearance. In Guernsey cattle, a yellowish secre- 
tion of the skin inside of the ear, and a waxy color of the horn 
are often regarded as evidence that the butter will have a rich, 
golden color. The head should have a distinctly feminine 
expression, and in all its features should be clean-cut and sharply 
defined. Such a head has a chiseled appearance indicative of 
quality and good breeding. 



142 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The neck should be long and fine. The upper edge has a 
slight concave curve, and the lower border has a thin fold or 
edge of skin, called the "dewlap," extending upwards from the 
brisket. If the neck is short and thick, or has much depth, 
so as to make it appear heavy, there is a lack of true dairy type. 
The throat should be neat and trim, rather than full. Naturally 
we do not want the neck and shoulders to blend smoothly as in 
beef cattle, for this results from heavy fleshing. 

The brisket of the dairy cow is much narrower and sharper 
than in beef cattle, and does not carry forward so prominently, 
the difference being mainly due to the heavy fleshing of the 
beef animal. 




Fig. 42. A Combination of Beauty and Utility. 

Jersey cow, Bosnian's Anna, Champion at the National Dairy Show. 
Her chiseled, feminine head, straight top line, deep rib, nicely balanced udder, 
and large veins are all noteworthy. She is especially strong in temperament 
and quality. Note also the correlation between levelness of rump and level- 
ness of udder. Owned by Mr. C. I. Hudson, East Norwich, L. I., N. Y. 



The shoulders should be light, that is, free from heavy 
fleshing, and the tops of the shoulder blades and the spines of the 
vertebrae should form rather sharp and refined withers. The 
shoulders will not appear smooth, but they should not be rough 
and coarse. A rather open, loosely connected shoulder is asso- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 143 

ciated with the open-jointed conformation desired in the dairy 
animal, and is a feature found in many of the record-holding 
cows. 

The front legs should be fairly short, should come down 
straight, and the toes should point straight ahead. The pas- 
terns should be strong. There should be no coarseness of shanks 
or joints. Very often the knees come quite close together, the 
legs being crooked, and the toes turning out, but this is a faulty 
position and often indicates a narrow chest and lack of con- 
stitution. 

The chest gets its capacity from depth more than from 
width. However, the fore-rib should have at least a medium 
degree of arch; breeders of Holstein-Friesian cattle place much 
emphasis upon a pronounced arch of rib. The fore-rib should 
carry down deep to give plenty of room for the heart and lungs. 
Beef cattle should fill up full and smooth with flesh behind the 
shoulder, but dairy cattle typically show some slight depression 
just behind the shoulder, although the heart-girth must be very 
large to insure a strong constitution. The distance between 
the front legs is a fairly accurate measure of the width of the 
chest floor, which should not be cramped, but ample, with the 
front flanks well filled out. In making a large flow of milk, 
the heart has to pump great quantities of blood which the lungs 
must purify, thus demanding that the dairy cow have an excel- 
lent constitution. 

The back should be straight and strong, and have mod- 
erate width, and a fair degree of length. Dairy cattle seem 
put together somewhat loosely; it is not desired that they should 
be closely coupled or short in the back. A sway-back is some- 
times said to indicate true dairy type, but there is no good 
argument in support of this view; it is logical that cows with 
-big middles should have straight, strong tops. Some dairymen 
also desire that the backbone shall stand up prominently along 
the back, loin, and rump, and terminate in a long tail. The 
argument is that a well-developed backbone encloses a large 
spinal cord, and as a large nerve branches off at the last dorsal 
vertebrae and goes to the udder to control operations there, a 
large spinal column is accepted as evidence of proper develop- 
ment of the nervous system, which, in turn, is supposed to 
signify increased efficiency on the part of the cow as a milk 
machine. Whether the size of the brain, spinal cord, and branch- 
ing nerves, rather than their quality and texture, determines 



144 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



the efficiency of the nervous system may be questioned, and 
as for the course of reasoning showing the relation between 
length of tail and quantity of milk yield, the reader may take it 
for what he deems it worth and form his own conclusions. In 
any event, there are many other ways of estimating a cow's 
value, the reliability of which are better substantiated. How- 
ever, a prominent backbone is valuable as an evidence of true 
dairy temperament, or freedom from beefiness. 

The loin should be rather long, should carry up level and 
strong, and show a fair degree of width. 




Fig. 43. Excellent 1 ype in ihe Dairy Cow. 

Ayrshire cow, Kilnford Bell 3d., Champion at the National Dairy Show 
in 1913 and 1914. Note the beautiful head of this cow, and her large, shapely 
udder. Her conformation indicates strength and vigor without coarseness. 
Owned by Mr. Adam Seitz, Waukesha, Wis. 

The barrel ought to be very deep and wide, and this is 
secured when the ribs are very long and reasonably well arched. 
There will be no such degree of rotundity as is found in beef 
cattle; there should be a well-developed paunch with a capacity 
for lots of feed. A flat-sided conformation means a restricted 
capacity for food. The ribs do not lie close together along the side 
as in beef cattle, and there is more space between the last rib and 
the hip. Of all the points discussed thus far, two are of vast 
importance; these are constitution and digestive capacity. The 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 145 

dairy cow is a milk machine and should be studied and operated 
as such. It is thus much easier to put emphasis where it belongs 
and so arrive more quickly at the true worth of the animal. 
Milk is manufactured in the udder from nutriment derived 
from the feed, and if the cow has the true dairy temperament 
and does not tend to take on flesh, the quantity of her milk yield 
will be in direct relation to the quantity and quality of the feed 
consumed. A heavy milk flow therefore necessitates full de- 
velopment of the organs of digestion, respiration, and circula- 
tion, the external evidences of which are a large heart-girth, 
a large barrel-girth, and a rather lengthy middle. 

The hips are very prominent, and should be as wide as 
possible. Narrowness across the hips is often associated with 
a lack of width in barrel, and when the hips and rump are nar- 
row, the hind legs often set close together, leaving little space 
for the udder. 

The rump should be wide and level to insure against dif- 
ficulty in calving, and should not rise strongly at the tail-head 
as that conformation usually goes with the sway-back. A level 
rump is usually associated with a level udder. Length of rump 
is also very desirable; it gives symmetry to the form, and pro- 
vides room for a long udder-attachment below. A narrow, 
peaked rump is liable to cause trouble at calving time, and, as 
pointed out, it brings the hind legs too close together. At the 
end of the rump on either side of the tail are the pin-bones. 
They should be wide apart, for reasons similar to those just 
mentioned. From the point of the hip to the end of the rump 
there should be a well-marked hollow, insuring against beefiness 
of rump. 

The tail performs a part in milk production by protecting 
from the annoyance of flies. The fleshy part of the tail should 
extend to the point of the hock and the brush should be heavy 
and long. The root of the tail should be carried on a line with 
the rump, showing no undue prominence or roughness. 

The thighs should be muscular, but not fleshy. From a 
rear view they should be fine and there should be no fleshing 
between the legs to take up the space that should be filled by 
the udder. It is desirable that the thighs be long, and that 
the conformation inside the thigh be incurving. Much varia- 
tion in rumps and thighs will be found in dairy animals, ranging 
from decided beefiness to the trim, clean-cut conformation 
shown by the best dairy cows. 



146 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The hind legs should be placed well apart, and they should 
come down straight. If the toes point outward and the hocks 
come close together, the conformation is weak and there is not 
sufficient room for the udder. 

The udder of the dairy cow comes in for special attention, 
ranking in importance with the chest and barrel, the three being 
fundamental in the make-up of a sucessful dairy cow. The 
udder's size, texture, shape, and teats should be carefully studied. 

Size of udder. — The udder should be large in circumfer- 
ence, carrying well forward along the belly, and extending by 
a graceful curve high up between the hind legs. When a side 
view of the cow is taken as she stands in natural position, the 
udder should carry out far in front of the hind legs, and the 
swell of the rear quarters of the udder should be plainly evident 
back of the leg. A measurement of nearly six feet around the 
udder has been reported, just two inches less than the cow's 
heart-girth. The udders of heifers are often deceptive, having 
much greater capacity than the exterior indicates. This is 
because the udder is held snugly against the abdominal wall; 
but with increase in age and yield of milk, the added weight 
produces some relaxation of the supporting tissues, and the 
udder becomes more pendulous and prominent. 

Texture of udder.^ — Two sorts of tissue mainly compose 
the udder — glandular tissue and connective tissue. The for- 
mer is the seat of secretory activity, and the latter serves the 
purpose of a framework or support. More or less fatty tissue 
is also present. Naturally, it is very important that there be 
a large proportion of glandular tissue and a relatively small 
amount of connective tissue. This is determined by examining 
the udder with the hands for mellowness, which indicates that 
the udder is largely glandular; or still better by having the cow 
milked, when the udder should show much decrease in size, 
and the skin covering it should shrivel. When the udder is 
composed largely of connective tissue, if feels firm and is referred 
to as "meaty," and when it is milked out, the yield of milk is 
small and the udder shows little or no decrease in size. Unfor- 
tunately, meaty udders usually excel in shape and appearance, 
while the most glandular ones have not sufficient connective 
tissue to properly support them, the heavy weight causing them 
to hang down rather loosely to form what is called a "pendant" 
udder. Many large producers have such udders, whereas it 
is a fact that the type of udder that wins in the show ring is 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 147 

often lacking in milk capacity. The skin and hair covering the 
udder should be very soft and fine. Texture of udder is one 
of the most important considerations in judging dairy cows. 

Shape of udder. — All sorts of sizes, textures, and shapes 
are presented. The most desirable shape is an evenly balanced 
udder, with all four quarters fully developed, and having a flat 
floor, instead of being cut up between the halves and quarters. 
There is a natural tendency for the rear quarters to develop 
much more than the front quarters, the latter often terminating 
abruptly, but the most desirable shape is one extending well 
forward to make what is termed a balanced udder. Udders 
which carry neither forward nor backward, but are small and 
tapering from base to teats, without any fullness, are termed 
"funnel-shaped" udders. Undoubtedly there is considerable 
correlation between shape of rump and shape of udder. A long 
rump goes with a long udder, a wide rump with a wide udder, 
and a level rump is associated with a level udder in contrast 
to the tipped-up form of udder so often associated with a droop- 
ing rump. Shape and balance of udder are important, but 
subsidiary to size and texture. 

The teats and their placement. — ^The teats should be cylin- 
drical, perpendicular, hang on the same level, and be placed at 
least six inches apart each way, so as to be easily grasped in 
the hand. They should be three or four inches long and of a 
size to make milking easy, but not too large, for udders with 
very large teats are usually cut up between the halves and quar- 
ters, and this occurs at the expense of glandular tissue. When 
dairy cows are judged, a small amount of milk is drawn from 
each teat to make certain that the teat is unobstructed and 
free from defects not evident to the eye. Leaky teats are due 
to weakness of the muscles of the teat, this being an undesirable 
trait rather commonly met with, especially in heavy milkers 
just before milking time. Some udders have not only four 
large teats, but also one or more small or rudimentary ones. 
A small amount of milk may sometimes be drawn from them, 
as they usually spring from rudimentary glands. It is pre- 
ferred that the udder have four full-sized teats, and four only. 

In conclusion it may be said that the udder, first of all, 
should be large; second, it should be mellow and glandular; 
third, it should be well-balanced and of good shape; fourth, 
the teats should be of medium size and placed well apart. 



148 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The milk-veins are large veins passing forward from the 
udder along the belly just beneath the skin, and disappearing 
through openings in the body-wall known as milk-wells. The 
position of the milk-wells varies; some are near the fore flanks, 
and some midway between the udder and the front legs. As 
will be explained more fully later, nutriment derived from the 
food is carried to the udder by the blood and is there utilized 
in the manufacture of milk. After the udder has absorbed those 
elements necessary in making milk, the blood returns to the 
heart through the milk-veins. It is evident that the size and 




Fig. 44. An Inferior Dairy Cow. 

Note the staggy head, coarse neck, uneven top line, small barrel, coarse 
sloping rump, beefy thighs, and small funnel-shaped udder. Her wedge 
from the side view points the wrong way. 

development of these veins is a good index to the cow's milking 
capacity, hence they are highly useful in judging dairy cows. 
The milk-veins of young heifers are small in diameter and are 
straight. As the heifer develops and her milk flow increases, 
the veins show increase in diameter, sometimes to an inch or 
more, they often become crooked or tortuous, and may extend 
forward toward the fore flanks. The degree of tortuousness 
varies according to the vein's diameter, small veins being nearly 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 149 

straight and large ones very crooked indeed. There will be at 
least two milk-veins, one on each side of the belly, and some- 
times there will be three, the third one having a position on the 
middle of the abdomen between the two side veins. They 
sometimes show more or less branching, each branch passing 
forward and disappearing through its own milk- well. Although 
diameter of veins is probably most important, length and exten- 
sion of veins are also regarded as important, indicating an in- 
creased venous development and capacity for a larger flow of 
blood, due to the added number of milk-wells which make easy 
the work of handling a large circulation. Nearly all phenom- 
enal producers have veins not only of large diameter and decided 
tortuousness, but also of many branches and forward exten- 
sions. Small veins, called udder veins, occur on some udders, 
their presence being further evidence of a well-developed mam- 
mary circulation. 

The milk-wells vary in size to correspond with the veins, 
and are taken into account in judging. They should be large 
and easily indented when the finger is applied to them. They 
are especially valuable in estimating the milking qualities of dry 
cows, for while the udder and milk- veins are much decreased in 
size during the dry period, the wells maintain their usual diameter. 

The escutcheon or "milk mirror" is that portion of the udder 
and thighs that is covered with hairs turning up and out, in 
place of down, as on the rest of the body. A Frenchman, 
Francois Guenon, beginning in 1814 as a boy of fourteen years, 
worked out in great detail what is known as the Guenon or 
escutcheon theory. He classified cows and bulls into ten orders 
and each of these again into four grades, depending on the size 
and shape of the escutcheon. To each of these orders and grades 
he ascribed certain values. He also attached certain values 
to the location of the tufts, ovals, or swirls in the hair on the 
thighs, making seven additional classes of these. Guenon 
claimed to be able to tell accurately the producing ability of 
the cow, and it is said that in tests before various agricultural 
societies in France he was very successful in proving his theory. 
The escutcheon theory was formerly highly credited by many 
dairymen, and in rather recent years at least one agricultural 
college published a score card for dairy cows that gave about 
fifty points out of one hundred to the escutcheon. 

Modern tests have found this theory to be altogether lack- 
ing in accuracy. At the present time most score cards used by 



150 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

colleges allow only one or two points to the escutcheon. Some 
have omitted it from consideration altogether, and this seems 
entirely justifiable, as the escutcheon theory may be rightly 
regarded as a quack theory. 

The quality of dairy cows is shown in the hide, hair, ear, 
horn, head, and bone, the same as in beef cattle. The dairy 
cow has a thinner skin than the beef cow, and it should also 
possess a maximum of mellowness and unctuousness or oiliness. 
An oily hide is something of an evidence of milk rich in fat; 
and an abundant yellowish secretion about the udder, inside 
the thighs, around the eyes, inside the ears, at the root of the 
tail, and below any spots of light-colored hair indicates a rich 
butter color. Opinions differ on the question of quality in dairy 
cattle. Some breeders aim at a very rugged type having great 
constitution, rather large bone, and a medium thick hide. This 
type is exemplified by many Holstein-Friesians and by the St. 
Lambert family of Jerseys. Other breeders desire extreme 
quality, and this may result in some delicacy of constitution. 
Perhaps this type is best illustrated by what is known as the 
"Island-type" of Jersey, which is the tjrpe developed in the 
native home of the breed on the Island of Jersey, and also fos- 
tered by many breeders of Jersey cattle in the United States. 
The average dairyman will be wise to steer a course midway 
between the two extremes, insisting upon constitution first and 
then upon as much quality as may be had without delicacy. 

The temperament is of much importance. Temperament 
is a term used to express differences in the mental and physical 
constitutions of individuals. Temperaments are of two kinds 
— sanguine and lymphatic. The sanguine temperament is 
characterized by a strong, frequent pulse, firm flesh, soft and 
light hair, active movements, and sensitiveness. The lym- 
phatic temperament is featured by a rather sluggish circulation, 
fleshiness, thicker skin and coarser hair, slow movements, and 
quietness. The sanguine temperament is possessed in marked 
degree by the best dairy cattle, while beef cattle have the lym- 
phatic temperament. The best evidence of true dairy tem- 
perament is a lean, angular appearance in all parts of the animal. 
A dairy bull, a young heifer, or a dry cow may show some degree 
of fleshiness without being seriously faulted for it, but a cow in 
milk should be free from beefiness even when well fed. This 
is a good indication that she is an economical milk producer. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 151 

The disposition varies greatly in different individuals. 
An irritable, kicking, fence-jumping cow is not expected to 
make much of a record as a milk and butter-fat producer. She 
uses too much of her energy in performance that has no market 
value; the making of milk is a secondary matter with her. Such 
cows consume little feed and exhibit a fastidious appetite; in 
short, they are not useful cattle, there being too much waste 
of energy in nervousness and bad temper. In contrast to such 
cows is the cow that never moves faster than a walk and is gentle 
and pleasant to handle. She is a good feeder and is easily 
suited with her feed. She spends lots of time chewing her cud 
and is always busy making milk. She is a useful, profitable 
cow, provided she has the conformation which enables her to 
work successfully. The irritable cow has an uneasy and wild 
expression of the eye, and carries her head high. She is usually 
switching her tail whether it is fly-time or not. Proper dispo- 
sition is indicated by a calm eye, and by a carriage of the poll 
of the head no higher or lower than the withers. If the head 
is carried high it indicates nervousness, while a head carried low 
indicates quietness carried to the extreme of sluggishness. 

The size of dairy cows varies between wide limits. The 
holders of the world's records in milk and butter-fat production 
are large cows, which is a condition naturally to be expected, 
but does not signify that small cows are necessarily less profit- 
able. The beef producer must keep up a certain degree of size 
in his cattle in order that the cuts of beef will have the size and 
weight desired, but with dairy cattle it is different. The dairy- 
man cares not so much that his cows are large and hence large 
yielders, as that the yield be made economically; he studies the 
production in relation to the feed consumed. Small cows not 
only yield less, but eat less, and may be as profitable as large 
cows. The latter have an advantage in that they can profitably 
consume proportionately more roughage, and fewer of them 
need be kept to produce a given quantity of milk, requiring 
fewer stalls and slightly less labor. On the other hand, if the 
calves can be sold at a profit, as would be true of a purebred 
herd, the smaller cows will realize more profit from this source. 
The question of size is of minor importance and may be almost 
ignored so far as the production of market milk is concerned. 

The Dairy Bull. 

The features of dairy type as they apply to the dairy cow 
having been fully discussed, and the fundamental points of 



152 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



dairy type having been set forth in that connection, the require- 
ments for the bull may be presented more quickly. In form the 
bull should be rather long and moderately wide, with a deep 
rib, rather short leg, and rather angular body. His build should 
impress one with its strong constitution, barrel capacity, strength 
of back, and muscularity without beefiness. The head should 
be decidedly masculine in its proportions and expression, and have 
a wide muzzle, large nostrils, large, bright eyes with a coura- 
geous expression, and clean-cut features In all breeds except 
the Ayrshire, the masculine head will have short, stubby horns. 
The neck should be strong and the crest heavily developed. 




Fig. 45. Excellent Type in the Dairy Bull. 

Guernsey bull, Holden 4th, a noted breeding and show bull. Masculinity, 
depth of body, quality, and freedom from beefiness are his outstanding good 
points. Owned by Wilcox & Stubbs, Des Moines, la. 

The brisket shows more width, depth, and prominence than 
in the cow, in keeping with a masculine development of the 
forequarters. The shoulders are deeper and more heavily 
developed, but should not be beefy. The withers show more 
width than in the cow, yet tend to be fine and free from flesh. 
The front legs should be straight, rather short, and have fair 
width between. The chest should be moderately wide and 
very deep. The back should be moderately wide and fairly 
long, but carried up straight and strong. The top line of the 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



153 



dairy bull usually rises higher over the withers and neck than 
over the back and loin, and the first impression may be that 
the animal is sway-backed, but upon further study the observer 
often finds he has been misled by the rise over the withers and 
crest. No marked covering of flesh should be found on the 
■back, but the backbone should be plainly evident. 

The loin should be long, level, and medium wide. The 
barrel should be deep and well developed, but need not show 
as much capacity as demanded in the cow. The hips are only 
moderately wide, the points being much less prominent than 




'<i . 






i3 



Fig. 46. A Dairy Bull with Strength and Vigor. 

Holstein-Friesian bull, King Homestead DeKol, Champion at many 
state fairs and at the Waterloo and National Dairy Shows in 1911. His 
masculinity, ruggedness, and length and depth of body are marked. Owned 
by Mr. John B. Irwin, Minneapolis, Minn. 

in the female. The rump should be long, level, and medium 
wide. The thighs may be slightly heavier than in the female, 
but any considerable degree of thickness is sharply criticized. 
Some dairy bulls almost rival beef bulls in the amount of fleshing 
shown in the hindquarters, and such animals are distinctly not 
of true dairy type in conformation and temperament. A dairy 
bull should carry no more fleshing than is permissible in a dry 
cow or in a heifer before her first calving. The bull should be 
well divided between the hind legs, and should have rather flat, 



154 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

trim thighs. The hind legs should be placed rather well apart, 
and should be straight and medium short. 

In common with the males of nearly all species of animals 
classed as mammals, the dairy bull has miniature teats called 
rudimentaries. These are located in front and on each side of 
the scrotum, there being two on a side. They vary in length 
from mere buttons to an inch or more. Some persons attach 
much significance to the rudimentaries, believing that their 
position and size indicate the shape and capacity of udder which 
will be shown by the bull's daughters. It is not established 
that the rudimentaries really have such a significance, and 
many persons give them no attention in judging. Dairy bulls 
also have small veins on the belly corresponding to the large 
milk-veins of the dairy cow. 

The quality of the bull is very important; it should be easily 
apparent in a loose, mellow hide, and a reasonable degree of 
quality is also wanted in head and bone. Coarseness is an 
evidence of lack of good breeding. In disposition, dairy bulls 
are much less quiet and trustworthy than beef bulls, often being 
ill-natured and sometimes unruly. This does not subject them 
to criticism unless they become dangerous and difficult to handle, 
but is accepted as an evidence of masculinity. 

The individuality of the dairy bull is certainly somewhat 
significant of his value, but it reveals less of the animal's ability 
to perform his function than does the cow's individuality when 
it is studied in relation to function. The bull is only valuable as 
a progenitor of heifer calves that will develop into heavy milkers. 
What points, therefore, in the individuality of the bull are evi- 
dence that he will sire high-producing cows? It may as well 
be stated first as last that it is impossible to determine in any 
accurate manner from the bull's individuality what his breeding 
qualities, as they relate to milk flow, will be. There are far more 
reliable sources from which to form such an estimate and these 
will be discussed later. Nevertheless, it is important that the 
dairy bull show a rugged constitution, great digestive capacity, 
strength of conformation, and absence of beefiness, these being 
essential points desired in his female offspring. If he is faulty 
in any of these respects, we may reasonably suppose that his 
daughters will be similarly deficient. He should be masculine 
in order to insure potency. Having all these points of indi- 
viduality, it is still a question as to what sort of performance 
may be expected from his daughters. 



CHAPTER XI. 
THE SECRETION OF MILK. 

Milk is secreted by the mammary glands or udder of the 
female after the birth of young, the secretion continuing until 
the young are mature enough to live on ordinary food. All 
animals which have mammary glands are classed as mam- 
mals, and this group of animals presents wide variations in 
the number, position, capacity, shape, and prominence of the 
glands. The mammary glands are present in the male in rudi- 
mentary condition, although, in abnormal cases, milk is secreted 
by males. Milk is easily digested and very nutritious, and no 
food for the young animal is equal to its mother's milk. The 
highest development of the udder is found in the dairy cow, 
the extreme development having been largely secured by careful 
breeding; the lactation period has become prolonged, and the 
daily yield and quality of milk have been much improved. Cows 
have been known to secrete over one hundred and fifty 
pounds of milk in a day, their own weight in less than two weeks, 
and over fifteen tons in a year. 

Exterior of the cow's udder. — The cow's udder consists 
of four mammary glands, usually referred to as the "quarters," 
and sometimes there are one to four rudimentaries, all arranged 
in pairs on opposite sides of the median line of the body. The 
udder begins a few inches behind the umbilicus and continues 
backward and upward between the legs. The right and left 
sides are divided on the exterior by a well-defined line or groove, 
but the line of separation between the front and rear quarters 
is not so pronounced. The appearance of size depends partly 
upon the strength and shape of the abdominal wall; if the wall 
is loose, the udder is forced downward and backward and there 
is a seeming increase in size. This sometimes accounts for the 
apparently sudden development of a good udder after the 
second or third calving. The skin covering the udder is very 
thin and elastic, and the hair is finer, softer, and shorter than on 
the rest of the body. The skin covering the teats bears little 
or no hair, and is often of a darker color than upon other parts. 

Structure of the cow's udder. — When dissected, the right 
and left halves of the udder are found to be enveloped in strong, 

155 



156 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



fibrous capsules. The fibers of the two capsules intermingle 
somewhat, and are prolonged upward to the median line of the 
body to form a ligamentous support and partition, the two halves 
thus being made distinct. The quarters on each side are not 
so distinctly separated, there being no such well-developed par- 
tition as between the halves, nor can the line of separation be 
seen unless the tissues are stained. Dr. A. W. Bitting of the 
Indiana Experiment Station injected different colored liquids 
through the teats and found that the liquids did not leave the 




Fig. 47. Cross-section of Cow's Udder. 

a, Body of gland; b, milk cistern; c, cavity of teat; d, duct of teat; e, inter- 
mammary groove; f, septum between glands; g, supramammary fat. 



quarter, his investigation showing that a rather distinct trans- 
verse partition exists. It follows that milk drawn from any 
teat must be produced in its quarter, although there is slight 
communication between the smaller ducts in the upper parts of 
the two quarters on a side. Between the quarters of the same 
half, the capsule sends off a rather incomplete transverse parti- 
tion common to both, and there are numerous other reflections 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 157 

of the capsule inward from all sides to serve as a supporting 
framework for the gland tissue and to form the milk cisterns 
and ducts. 

Structure of the teat. — The tissues of the capsule are pro- 
longed downward, becoming greatly thickened, to form the 
walls of the teats. The teat is cylindrical or conical in shape, 
variable in length and diameter, and placed at the lowest por- 
tion of the gland. Its shape and size are independent of the 
size of the gland. It is very elastic and is covered with a tough, 
close-fitting, thin skin. Through its center runs a duct called 
the teat-canal, having a capacity, when distended, of from one 
to one and one-half ounces in moderate-sized teats. There are 
both circular and longitudinal muscle fibers, and at the lower 
end the circular fibers form an involuntary sphincter muscle, 
the function of which is to keep the teat-canal closed under 
ordinary pressure. At the upper end of the teat is another 
involuntary sphincter muscle, but it does not completely close 
the canal, and sometimes a third is found farther above. The 
sphincters are sometimes so relaxed that very slight pressure 
is sufficient to open them, and the cow leaks her milk; of other 
cows the reverse is true, making them hard milkers. 

The milk -cistern, ducts, and alveoli. — Above the teat is 
a reservoir, called the milk-cistern, seldom holding more than 
half a pint. This cistern is divided into pockets of various 
sizes into which the large milk-ducts empty. At the point of 
entrance of these ducts are sphincter muscles, and while they 
cannot entirely close the openings, they may very nearly do so, 
and in this way the cow is enabled to "hold up her milk." These 
large ducts ramify to all parts of the gland and anastomose 
(intercommunicate) freely; and at the intersections are still 
other voluntary sphincter muscles. A strong effort on the part 
of the cow is required to close the larger ducts in the lower part 
of the udder, but a slight effort will close the smaller canals 
further up in the glands. Cows differ greatly in their control 
over these muscles and in their disposition to exert it. The 
most common causes of holding up milk are fright, the presence 
of strangers in the stable, lack of familiarity with surroundings, 
irregularity in the time or manner of feeding or milking, and 
sexual heat. With some cows it becomes a habit, much injuring 
the usefulness and milking capacity of the animal. The large 
ducts subdivide into smaller ducts, and these again into smaller 
ones, until they terminate in groups of small sac-like bodies 



158 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



known as the ultimate follicles, acini, or alveoli The teat-canal, 
milk-cistern, and ducts are lined with columnar epithelium. 

The alveolus (plural, alveoli) is the sacculated distention 
found in groups of three to five on the end of the minute milk- 
ducts. It is the essential part of the gland. It is lined by a 
single layer of epithelial cells which are especially concerned 
in milk production. The alveolus is only 1-30 of an inch in 
diameter, and its cavity is from 1-250 to 1-100 of an inch in 
length and from 1-1300 to 1-800 of an inch in diameter. New 
ducts and alveoli may be formed up to about the fifth or sixth 
year, thereby increasing the producing capacity of the cow. 




^'^ X 



Group of alveoli, 
cells; e, fibrous tissue. 



Fig. 48. Where Milk is Made. 

a, Duct; b, capillary network; c, alveoli; d, epithelial 
(After Hough & Sedgwick.) 



The entire gland may be compared to a large bunch of 
grapes; the main duct of the gland branches very much as the 
stem of the bunch of grapes branches; and just as the branches 
and sub-branches of the stem lead to the grapes, so the branches 
of the duct lead to the alveoli of the gland. If we pack the 
bunch of grapes in a small basket of sawdust, so that the saw- 
dust fills up loosely the spaces between the individual grapes 
and the branches of the stem, we may develop our comparison 
further; the sawdust stands for the connective tissue in which 
the ducts and alveoli are embedded, and the basket stands for 
the capsule 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



159 



The arterial circulation. — The mammary glands are abun- 
dantly supplied with blood. The blood leaves the heart through 
the posterior aorta, common iliacs, and external iliac, which 
carry backward to the region of the hips. The external iliac 
there divides into two arteries, one of which, the prepubic, divides 
into the two pudic arteries, the external one of which passes 
down the thigh and gives off a branch, known as the mammary 
artery, which enters the top of the udder from the rear. The 
mammary artery has four large branches, one for each quarter 
of the udder, and there is also a small branch for each rudi- 
mentary gland. The large branches subdivide within the 
gland tissue. 




Fig. 49. Circulation To and From the Udder. 

The broken lines represent the arteries which carry blood containing the 
nutritive material to the udder where it is manufactured into milk. The 
heavy black lines represent the veins which carry the blood back to the heart. 
Note that there is but one route from the heart to the udder, whereas there 
are two routes from the udder to the heart. M. V., milk-vein; M. W., milk- 
well. (After Bitting of the Indiana Station.) 

The venous circulation is more complex than the arterial. 
The blood is collected from the capillaries by from 14 to 17 
large veins which empty into the mammary vein running parallel 
with the mammary artery at the top of the udder. The mam- 
mary vein is divided into two parts which encircle the top of 
the udder and connect in front and behind like a rope tied around 
it. From this circuit of veins the blood returns to the heart by 
two routes. One route leads out to the rear of the udder, then 



160 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

up to the region of the hips, and thence to the vena cava and the 
heart, the veins along the route being parallel to the arteries 
through which the blood came, and being similarly named. The 
other route is already familiar, leading out in front of the udder 
through the large subcutaneous abdominal veins (milk-veins) 
which pass through the chest wall and become a part of the in- 
ternal thoracic vein, reaching the heart by way of the anterior 
vena cava. The direction of the blood in the encircling veins at 
the top of the udder is determined by the valves in the vessels. 
The larger volume of blood passes through the milk-veins, thus 
bringing them into great prominence. During pregnancy, the 
pressure of the uterus tends to interfere with the circulation 
through the posterior vessels, and this tends to further increase 
the size of the milk-veins. Inasmuch as the blood may return to 
the heart posteriorly, it is possible to have a large milker with 
small milk-veins, but this is not likely to occur. Cows with 
large milk-veins are large producers, and cows with small milk- 
veins may be large producers. 

Nature and composition of milk. — Cow's milk is an opaque, 
yellowish-white fluid devoid of odor except for a short time 
after its extraction. When fresh, it is slightly sweet and has a 
slightly alkaline reaction. Under the microscope, milk is found 
to be a fine emulsion of fat, a quart of milk being estimated to 
contain 2,000,000,000,000 fat globules, and the cow that gives 
two gallons of milk per day must therefore secrete at the rate of 
over 175,000,000 fat globules per second. The composition of 
milk varies a great deal; there are differences between breeds, 
differences between individuals, and differences in the milk 
from the same cow at different times. As lactation advances, 
the daily milk yield decreases, but the percentage of fat con- 
stantly increases as does the percentage of all solids. The 
specific gravity of average milk is 1.032 and its composition is 
as follows: 



Milk 



Fat 3.9% 

The results of various American experiments indicate that 
the average composition of the milk of the various breeds is as 
follows: 



Water 87% 








f Ash 


.7% 




Solids not J Casein 


2.7% 




Fat 9.1% Albumin 


.7% 


Solids 13%- 


[ Sugar 


5.0% 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 161 

Breeds Solids Fat 

per d. per ct. 

Jersey 14,70 5.35 

Guernsey 14.71 5 . 16 

Shorthorn 13 . 38 4 . 05 

Ayrshire 12.61 3.66 

Holstein-Friesian 11 . 85 3 . 42 

The quantity of milk given by the different breeds is almost 
inversely proportional to the fat content, so that the total quan- 
tity of solids and fat is nearly the same for all dairy breeds. The 
highest average percentage of fat in a regular milking that has 
been reported is 10.7, and the cow did not give milk of this rich- 
ness regularly. In a few cases, tests showing 9 per cent, have 
been made and it is only rarely that a cow averages 7 per cent. 

Secretion of milk. — The udder is a true organ of secretion. 
Milk is not merely strained from the blood, but contains sub- 
stances not found in the blood, these being formed in the gland 
itself. Surrounding the alveoli are capillaries, and through 
the walls of the capillaries the fluids of the blood pass freely 
into the cavity of the alveoli by osmosis. At the same time, 
the epithelial cells lining the alveoli are the seat of secretory 
activities which produce some of the most important constituents 
of the milk. Thus milk is formed partly from the osmosis of 
blood serum and white blood corpuscles directly into the cavity 
of the alveolus, and partly by a chemical elaboration by the 
epithelial cells. The water from the blood serum passes out of 
the alveolus, carrying with it some of the mineral constituents 
of the blood in solution, and a part of the albumin of the blood 
serum. During its passage from the capillaries to the cavity 
of the alveolus, by far the larger part of the albumin of the blood 
is changed by the epithelial cells to the casein of milk. These 
cells also secrete globules of fat, having an average diameter of 
about 0.0001 of an inch. Small amounts of fat may also be 
carried over directly by the blood and appear in the milk without 
change. Only minute quantities of sugar are found in the blood, 
hence milk-sugar is no doubt also elaborated by the secretory 
cells of the udder. 

Milk secretion is not perfectly understood in all its details. 
In some of its phases, milk secretion is undoubtedly a continuous 
process, but the agitation of the udder at milking time seems 
to be very essential in completing the process of milk manufac- 
ture. Between milkings, the udder is engaged in certain im- 
portant preliminary steps which make possible the rapid 



162 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

culmination of the act of secretion when the stimulus afforded 
by agitation is given. (The theory that milk secretion is largely 
the result of cell growth, division and degeneration, is no longer 
held by leading physiologists.) 

If an udder is cut open just before milking time, it is found 
that the milk-cisterns and ducts are distended with milk con- 
taining a very low per cent, of butter-fat. The quantity of this 
milk is only a small part of the total yield which the cow would 
give at a milking. Agitation of the udder is necessary to com- 
plete the process of secretion. Observation of a calf, lamb, or 
kitten when nursing shows that considerable agitation is a promi- 
nent feature of nature's method of milking. Under this stimulus 
the water of the blood rushes through the walls of the alveoli 
and carries the butter-fat, which has been manufactured by the 
epithelial cells, down into the milk-ducts and cisterns, and finally 
through the teats. Other products of secretion, namely casein 
and lactose (milk-sugar), are brought down also. The last milk 
drawn from the udder is the richest in fat; in one experiment, 
four successive samples taken during the course of milking 
tested 0.76, 2.60, 5.35, and 9.80 per cent, of fat respectively. 

Experiments made at the Wisconsin Experiment Station 
in manipulating the udders of cows, after the regular milkings, 
resulted in bringing down considerable milk very rich in butter- 
fat. It was estimated that if the udders of the million cows in 
Wisconsin at that time were rnanipulated after the customary 
operation of milking, and if butter-fat is worth only twenty 
cents per pound, the value of the extra product would amount 
to $6.00 per head annually, or $6,000,000 for all the cows in 
the state. 

Colostrum. — Because of more or less incompleteness of the 
various processes of secretion at the start of the lactation period, 
the first milk differs in composition from that afterwards se- 
creted, and is called colostrum. It is thick and viscous, con- 
tains less water than normal milk, five times as much albumin, 
twice as much ash, slightly more fat, and about one-half the 
usual percentage of sugar. It has a laxative effect on the calf, 
useful in properly starting the work of digestion. In about one 
week following birth, the yield of milk usually increases and 
becomes normal in composition. 

Stimuli to secretion. — The cow has no control over the 
secretion of milk, it being involuntary. During the latter part 
of pregnancy, the embryo calf makes very rapid growth, and 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 163 

the blood supply to the placenta is much increased. At that 
time the cow does not ordinarily secrete milk, her excess of energy 
being given to the growth of the embryo. When the calf is 
born, the demand through the placenta ceases, and the large 
volume of blood is turned toward the udder. A short time 
previous to calving, the udder of the cow shows considerable 
increase in size, and by the time the calf is born the mammary 
glands are fulfilling their function nearly to the maximum capac- 
ity. In young heifers that have never had a calf, the udder con- 
tains a watery, saline fluid. Regular attempts at milking, or 
manipulation of the udder with the hands, or allowing a calf 
to suck, may stimulate the secretion of considerable normal 
milk in such young heifers. The same methods have been known 
to cause the secretion of a milk-like fluid by the rudimentary 
glands of males. Thorough milking furnishes a stimulus that 
causes prolongation of the lactation period, while incomplete 
removal of milk tends to check the secretion and shorten the 
milking period, and it may also cause serious inflammation. 
Frequent milkings tend to increase the flow of milk, but there 
is no special advantage in milking more often than twice a day 
unless the cow is a high producer and the udder becomes very 
much distended between milkings, as such distention acts as a 
check to further secretion. Regularity in milking is essential 
to best results, both in the amount secreted per day and in the 
length of the lactation period. 



CHAPTER XII. 
VARIATIONS IN THE USEFULNESS OF DAIRY COWS. 

The census of 1910 showed that the average cow kept for 
milk production averaged 3,113.2 pounds of milk per year. If 
this milk tested four per cent, fat, each cow produced 124.5 
pounds of butter-fat. Assuming that average butter contains 
85 per cent, of butter-fat, the average American dairy cow is 
found to have had 146.5 pounds of butter to her credit. Rather 
it was a discredit. It is generally agreed by dairymen that an 
annual production of at least 200 pounds of butter is necessary 
to pay for feed, labor, taxes, insurance, and interest on the 
investment in keeping one cow. The average dairy cow in the 
United States in 1919 was estimated to be worth $78.24. The 
cow that yields 200 pounds of butter in a year is not worth more 
than that, if as much. If the 250-pound cow gives 50 pounds 
for profit, or $20, she will pay 10 per cent, interest on $200. If 
the 200-pound cow is worth $75, the 250-pound cow is worth 
$275, the 400-pound cow is worth $875, and the few exceptional 
cows that produce enough butter-fat in a year to make 1000 
pounds of butter are each worth $3,275. These figures might 
be further increased by including the values of the calves pro- 
duced by each class of cows. As a matter of fact, however, 
cows yielding 200 pounds of butter or less are not worth any- 
thing as dairy cows, but only what they will bring for beef, 
and the 250-pound cow will not bring $275, yet she may pay 
a reasonable per cent, of interest on that sum. These figures 
are valuable only as indications of the wide variations in the 
usefulness of dairy cows. It is estimated that one-fourth of 
the cows in the entire country kept for milk do not pay for the 
cost of keeping, and nearly one-fourth more fail to yield an 
annual profit. 

The following tables are compiled from the results of the 
classic tests of purebred dairy cows at the Pan-American and 
Louisiana-Purchase expositions. These tables are presented to 
show variations in the profitableness of different individuals 
rather than of different breeds: 

164 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 165 

Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, igoi; six-months test. 



Breed and 
individual 



Guernsey — 

Best cow . . . 

Poorest cow 
Red Polled— 

Best cow . . . 

Poorest cow . 
Jersey — 

Best cow. . . 

Poorest cow. 
Holstein — 

Best cow 

Poorest cow 
Ayrshire — • 

Best cow . . . 

Poorest cow. 



Av. 
daily 
yield 
of 
milk 



Lbs. 

31.2 
23.5 

34.2 
30.1 

25.8 
30.3 

45.2 
41.1 

39.1 
36.8 



Per 

cent, 
of 
fat 



5.4 
4.4 

4.5 
3.7 

5.6 

4.0 

3.4 
3.3 

3.6 
3.4 



Daily 
return 
over 
feed 
cost 



Cents 

33.0 
16.3 

28.9 
17.6 

27.9 
21.4 

27.4 
20.3 

26.2 
21.5 



Breed and 
individual 



Shorthorn — 

Best cow . . . 

Poorest cow. 
Polled Jersey — 

Best cow . . . 

Poorest cow. 
Brown Swiss — ■ 

Best cow . . . 

Poorest cow. 
Fr. Canadian — 

Best cow . . . 

Poorest cow 
Dutch Belted- 
Best cow . . . 

Poorest cow 



Av. 
daily 
yield 

of 
milk 


Per 

cent, 
of 
fat 


Lbs. 




38.3 
33.6 


3.7 
3.4 


22.3 
13.7 


5.6 
4.3 


32.2 
34.6 


4.1 
3.3 


30.0 
21.4 


4.0 
3.7 


29.5 
21.8 


4.2 
3.1 



Daily 
return 
over 
feed 
cost 



Cents 

23.9 
16.0 

23.8 
8.6 

22.9 
16.9 

22.6 

12.7 

21.1 
6.4 



Louisiana-Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904; 120-day test. 



Breed and 


Average daily 
yield per cow 


Per 

cent. 

fat 


Feed 

cost 

100 lbs 

milk 


Feed 
cost 

1 lb. 
fat 


Gain 

in live 

wt. 


Daily 
return 


individual 


Milk 


Fat 


Total 
solids 


feed 
cost 


Jersey — 

Best cow 

Poorest cow .... 
Holstein-Friesian- 

Best cow 

Poorest cow .... 
Brown Swiss — 

Best cow 

Poorest cow .... 
Shorthorn — ■ 

Best cow 

Poorest cow . . . 


Lbs. 

48.4 
38.8 

67.5 

47.1 

51.0 
38.5 

43.4 
21.4 


Lbs. 

2.3 
1.6 

2.4 
1.5 

1.8 
1.5 

1.7 
0.8 


Lbs. 

6.7 
5.1 

7.5 
5.1 

6.1 
5.1 

5.5 

2.7 


4.8 
4.1 

3.5 
3. '2 

3.4 

3.8 

4.0 
3.9 


Cents 

55.0 
65.0 

45.0 
61.0 

54.5 
69.5 

54.5 
107.5 


Cents 

9.7 
13.2 

11.0 
16.5 

13.7 
15.5 

11.7 
23.5 


Lbs. 

77 
85 

54 
147 

74 
147 

139 
23.4 


Cents 

42.1 
22.3 

38.4 
15.0 

23.1 
16.5 

27.1 
1.6 



The tests at the two expositions cannot be compared, except 
in the most general sort of way, because different prices were 
charged for feed and credited for milk and butter-fat produced. 
All of the tests plainly show that greater variations in economy 
of production exist within the various breeds than between the 
breeds. This is a point often forgotten by those who argue 
upon the comparative merits of breeds. At the Pan-American 
Exposition, the best Guernsey cow returned five times as much 
profit as the poorest Dutch Belted cow. At the Louisiana- 



166 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Purchase Exposition, the best Jersey returned twenty-six times 
the profit returned by the poorest Shorthorn. In both tests 
it will be observed that in the majority of instances the best 
cow of a breed returned twice as much profit as the poorest cow 
of the same breed. 

At the Louisiana-Purchase Exposition, a Holstein cow was 
the leader in total production of milk and butter-fat, and a Jersey 
led in economy of production. The following facts from the 
complete, detailed reports are of much value in showing the 
possibilities for profit from well-bred dairy cows of real dairy 
type. Although varying considerably in the quantity and 
quality of milk produced, it will be observed that they were 
nearly equal from the standpoint of net profits: 

Name Shadybrook Gerben Loretta D. 

Breed Holstein Jersey 

Duration of test, days 120. 120 . 

Days in milk at beginning of test 12. 71. 

Total pounds milk 8101.7 5802.7 

Total pounds butter-fat 282 . 6 280. 2 

Total pounds butter 330.4 330.0 

Average per cent, fat 3 . 48 4 . 82 

Average per cent, total solids 11 . 13 13 . 83 

Average pounds milk per day 67.5 48.4 

Pounds milk to make 1 lb. butter 24. 52 17. 58 

Average value milk per day, cents 86. 15 83 . 11 

Average value butter per day, cents 68 . 82 68. 75 

Average grain ration, pounds 22 . 1 17.5 

Average hay and silage, pounds 64.2 86.9 

Cost of ration per day, cents 30.47 26.65 

Cost of feed in 100 lbs. milk, cents 45. 55. 

Cost of feed in 1 lb. butter, cents 11 . 07 9 . 69 

Average net profit milk per days, cents 55 . 68 56.45 

Average net profit butter per day, cents 38.34 42.09 

Pounds gain in weight during test 54. 77. 

The highest records in milk and butter-fat production are 
useful in showing the possibilities in the breeding, feeding, and 
management of dairy cattle. Sometimes these records are made 
regardless of economy in production, no expense being spared 
to give the cow every opportunity to make a high record; some- 
times they have been secured at the expense of the cow's future 
usefulness, her constitution being undermined and her digestion 
permanently deranged by the forcing methods that are prac- 
ticed. Hence the value of such records is sometimes over- 
estimated. 

Following are the leading records of the various dairy 
breeds, the world's records over all breeds being indicated by 
an asterisk (*). 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 167 

Holsteins. 

♦One day, 1917, May Echo Sylvia (Ontario, Can.) 152. 10 lbs. milk 

*One day, 1919, Rolo Mercena D'eKol (Ontario, Can.). . . 6.86 lbs. fat 

*7 days, 1917, May Echo Sylvia (Ontario, Can.) 1,005. 10 lbs. milk 

*7 days, 1919, Rolo Mercena DeKol (Ontario, Can.). . . 41.54 lbs. fat 

*30 days, 1917, May Echo Sylvia (Ontario, Can.) 4,196.90 lbs. milk 

*30 days, 1919, Rolo Mercena DeKol (Ontario, Can.) .. . 160.27 lbs. fat 

*One year, 1919, Tilly Alcartra (California) 33,428 .80 lbs. milk 

*One year, 1915, Duchess Skylark Ormsby (Minnesota) . . 1,205.09 lbs. fat 

Guernseys. 

One year, 1915, Murne Cowan (Ohio) 24,008.00 lbs. milk 

One year, 1915, Murne Cowan (Ohio) 1,098. 18 lbs. fat 

Jerseys. 

One year, 1915, Passport (Pennsylvania) 19,694.80 lbs. milk 

One year, 1919, Vive La France (Oregon) 1,031 . 64 lbs. fat 

Ayrshires. 

One year, 1915, Garclaugh, May Mischief (Pennsylvania) 25,329 .00 lbs. milk 
One year, 1915, Lily of Willowmoor (Washington) 955. 56 lbs. fat 

Brown Swiss. 

One year, 1913, College Bravura 2d. (Michigan) 19,460. 60 lbs. milk 

One year, 1913, College Bravura 2d. (Michigan) 798. 16 lbs. fat 

An Ayrshire cow, Crocus, is reported to have given over 
45 tons of milk during her 17 years of life. Another Ayrshire 
cow, Annie Bert, is reported to have given over 45 tons of milk 
during twelve lactation periods. She also had a record of nearly 
2 tons of butter. The University of Missouri had a Jersey cow, 
Hope of Ramapo, that in 17 years produced 78,585 pounds of 
milk, 4,147 pounds of butter, and 15 calves, thus bringing 
$1,341.72 into the treasury. The noted Jersey cow, Jacoba 
Irene, in 37 months produced 42,373 pounds of milk and 2,331 
pounds of butter-fat. Another noted Jersey, Sophie 19th. of 
Hood Farm, in 6 years produced 75,920 pounds of milk and! 
4,433 pounds of fat. Lily of Willowmoor, an Ayrshire owned 
in the state of Washington, produced 84,991 pounds of milk 
and 3,362 pounds of fat in 5 years. The most notable long- 
distance record is that of the Holstein cow Tilly Alcartra, owned 
in California, that has produced in 6 consecutive years a total 
of 4,913 pounds of butter-fat and 156,776 pounds of milk. 

Cause of wide variation in production. — Prof. C. H. Eckles 
of the Missouri Station* has determined why dairy cows vary 
so widely in production and profit. Two cows in the station 
herd showing striking difference in ability were selected for the 



*Mo. Res. Bui. 2. 



168 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

investigation. They were registered Jerseys, sired by the same 
bull, from dams distantly related, and they had been raised 
under practically the same conditions. The following table 
gives the facts regarding these two cows during the first two 
milking periods prior to the investigation : 

Name Pedro's Ramaposa Pedro's Elf 

Date of birth Sept. 4, 1902 May 11, 1903 

Age at first calving 29 mo. 18 mo. 

Pounds milk, first lactation period 4552 878 

Pounds fat, first lactation period 238. 8 44 . 1 

Number of days in milk 337 131 

Pounds milk, second lactation period .... 7174 3189 

Pounds fat, second lactation period 377 114 . 8 

Number of days in milk 365 232 

During these two lactation periods, Pedro's Ramaposa 
produced 2.8 pounds of milk and 3.9 pounds of fat for each 
pound produced by Pedro's Elf. While the second milking 
period was in progress, an investigation was planned to deter- 
mine the cause of this difference in efficiency as dairy cows. 
The cows were therefore bred so that the calves might be born 
as near the same time as possible; Pedro's Elf calved October 
4, 1907, and Pedro's Ramaposa calved October 7. 

Complete records were kept of the amount and compo- 
sition of the feeds consumed Each cow was fed a ration of 
the same composition at all times, but the amount was varied 
to suit the individual. As there was a possibility of the inferior 
cow using part of her feed for depositing fat on her body — a 
characteristic of inferior dairy cows — each cow was fed such 
an amount as would keep her at a uniform body weight. Thus 
the feed consumed could be studied in relation to dairy qualities 
only. They were fed all they would consume, unless they began 
to lay on flesh and gain in weight. The refused feed was col- 
lected, analyzed, and deducted from the records. Complete 
records were kept of the milk produced and of its composition. 
The same man always milked both cows. In order to eliminate 
another disturbing factor from such an experiment, the cows 
were kept farrow; had they carried calves, it would have been 
impossible to have accurately measured the feed requirements 
for milk production. A digestion trial was conducted when the 
cows were at their maximum production to ascertain whether 
any difference existed in the efficiency of digestion. 

At the end of the milking period the cows were kept far- 
row and the same ration was fed as during the milking period; 
this was continued for 90 days, the feeding being so regulated 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 169 

in quantity as to maintain the cows at a uniform body weiglit 
In this way the requirement for maintenance was determined 
for each cow. A maintenance ration is one that will maintain 
a resting animal at a uniform body weight; such a ration keeps 
up the body heat, makes repairs in the tissues, and furnishes 
energy for the working of the heart, lungs, digestive and other 
organs, and for slight movements of the body. If the dairy 
cow is pregnant, she requires enough feed above maintenance 
to furnish nourishment for the foetus. Still more feed in excess 
of maintenance is necessary if she is giving milk as well as carry- 
ing a calf. Cows vary somewhat in their maintenance require- 
ments, hence two cows consuming the same amounts of feed 
may have different proportions of their feed available for milk 
production. For instance, a restless cow has a greater main- 
tenance requirement than a quiet one; when standing up, more 
feed is required for maintenance than when lying down. Many 
other factors affect the requirement for maintenance. It is 
therefore apparent that an investigation into the cause of differ- 
ences in the economy of production is not complete unless the 
requirement for maintenance is determined. This the Missouri 
Station did by finding how much feed was necessary to maintain 
each cow at a constant body weight while dry and farrow. Other 
experiments have shown that a well-fed dairy cow uses about 
43 per cent, of her feed for maintenance, 30 per cent, in the 
work of converting feed into milk, and about 20 per cent, finally 
appears as milk. These percentages vary, depending on the 
nature of the feed and the individual, but a good dairy cow is 
more efficient as a machine than either the horse or the steam 
engine. In the Missouri experiment it was found that the 
higher-producing cow required slightly more feed for mainte- 
nance; hence, the wide variation in production could not be 
accounted for by a superiority of the high-producing cow in 
regard to maintenance. 

During the year of the investigation, Pedro's Ramaposa 
produced 8,522 pounds of milk and 469.9 pounds of fat. Pedro's 
Elf produced 3,188 pounds of milk and 169.3 pounds of fat. 
The former produced 2.67 pounds of milk and 2.77 pounds of 
fat for each pound produced by the latter. The digestion trial 
showed practically identical results, the co-efficient of digestion 
being 64.39 per cent, for the best cow and 64.99 for the poorest 
cow. Pedro's Ramaposa consumed 1.75 pounds of feed for each 
pound used by the other cow, and the real cause of the differ- 



170 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

ence in production was found to be the amount of feed con- 
sumed above maintenance. The maintenance requirement 
being practically the same, Ramaposa had 65 per cent, of the 
total feed consumed available for milk production, and Elf had 
only 44.2 per cent, thus available. 

It was observed that Ramaposa, when producing the maxi- 
mum milk yield, was practically to the limit of her capacity 
for handling feed. Her maximum capacity for feed seemed to 
coincide closely with the amount necessary to maintain her at 
uniform weight. Elf consumed all her feed, and would have 
taken slightly more had it been offered, although she never 
showed lack of feed. Ramaposa had much the stronger ap- 
petite; she ate rapidly, swallowed the grain with much less 
chewing, and always showed by her impatience to get her feed 
a much keener appetite than did the latter. Both cows remained 
in excellent physical condition throughout the investigation. 

After deducting the maintenance requirement, one cow 
produced milk as economically as the other. The ratio between 
the feed available for milk production and the milk produced 
was practically the same for each cow. The experiment showed 
that cows vary but little in the maintenance requirement, or 
in their ability to digest feed. A superior dairy cow is one with 
a large capacity for feed above maintenance, and one that is 
not disposed to take on fat, but uses the feed above maintenance 
for milk production. This once more emphasizes the impor- 
tance of a large, well-developed barrel and its significance in 
judging dairy cows, provided the cow also has a high degree of 
dairy temperament as shown by her lean appearance when 
heavily fed while in milk. 

Efifect of feed on quantity and composition of milk. — The 
general statement may be made that the quantity of milk is 
dependent upon the amount of feed and upon the inherent milk- 
giving qualities of the cow. Feed has an effect on the quantity 
of the milk yield, in that an underfed cow cannot produce to 
the limit of her ability. As shown in the Missouri experiment, 
however, heavy feeding does not increase the cow's ability, it 
merely makes possible a production that is up to the limit of 
her natural, inherited ability. The composition of the milk 
cannot be permanently changed by any known method of feed- 
ing; the composition is regulated by the udder of the cow, each 
cow having her own characteristic quality of milk. By fatten- 
ing dry cows, the fat content of the milk is temporarily raised 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 171 

when the cows freshen. It is known that cows fed cottonseed 
meal yield butter that is hard and tallowy, with a high melting 
point, while linseed meal produces a soft butter with a low 
melting point. In spite of these and other minor exceptions, 
it may be said that improvement in the composition of milk 
is a breeding, rather than a feeding, problem. The feeder can 
only supply feed in such amount as will permit the cow to give 
a maximum flow of milk. But as we have seen, two cows may 
produce far different quantities of milk when given the best of 
care, so that increase in the quantity of milk is also a problem 
for the breeder. Cows are bom with certain inherent abilities; 
feeding can assist these inherent abilities to reveal themselves, 
but cannot permanently alter them. Great cows are bom great. 
Their greatness will not be realized, however, unless they are 
given good care and plenty of the right kind of feed to use in 
manufacturing milk. No matter how large and efficient a fac- 
tory may be, it cannot turn out much product unless it has 
available an abundant supply of the raw material, but an abun- 
dant supply of raw material will not raise the output of a poorly 
equipped or inefficient plant above a certain low maximum. 
It is far more correct to say that a well-fed dairy cow eats be- 
cause she gives milk, than it is to say that she gives milk because 
she eats. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
BREEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION. 

In 1919, there were 23,467,000 dairy cows on farms in the 
United States, and they were valued at $78.24 per head. If 
put in single file, allowing ten feet of space for each animal, 
they would make a line over 44,000 miles long, or would form 
a procession fourteen abreast from New York to San Francisco. 

On January 1, 1919, the leading states in numbers of dairy 
cows, and their average prices per head, were as follows: 

1. Wisconsin 1,803,000 

2. New York 1,478,000 

3. Iowa 1,381,000 

4. Minnesota 1,368,000 

5. Illinois 1,060,000 



82. 


6. 


Texas 


.1,060,000 


$63. 


89. 


7. 


Ohio 


. 1,030,000 


83. 


86. 


8. 


Pennsylvania . 


. 979,000 


85. 


78. 


9. 


Kansas 


. 964,000 


81. 


90. 


10. 


Missouri 


. . 919,000 


74. 



The distribution of dairy cows, by geographical divisions, 

on January 1, 1919, was as follows: 

North Atlantic 3,515,000 

South Atlantic 1,963,000 

North Central, East of Mississippi River 5,454,000 

North Central, West of Mississippi River 6,284,000 

South Central 4,294,000 

Far Western 1,957,000 



Total, United States 23,467,000 

No greater strides have been made in animal breeding 
during recent years than have been made by breeders of pure- 
bred dairy cattle. The methods used are very practical because 
they are based on accurate knowledge of the producing ability 
of the animals bred, such knowledge being secured by tests of 
the various cows in the herd. The dairyman engaged in the 
production of market milk or butter-fat has, in many instances, 
seen the benefits arising from keeping records and using them 
as a basis for improving his herd and has greatly benefited by 
adopting the methods used by the more progressive breeders 
of purebred dairy cattle. There is great need for the improve- 
ment of the average dairy cow of the country. The small num- 
ber of purebred dairy cows makes it inadvisable to recommend 
that this improvement shall be accomplished by replacing the 
average cow with a purebred cow, and that all milk and butter- 
fat shall be produced by purebred cattle. However, this ideal 
is easily possible of close approximation by using purebred dairy 

172 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



173 



bulls to grade up the ordinary dairy cows of the country. There 
is no good argument in behalf of keeping any except a purebred 
dairy bull at the head of any dairy herd. No progressive dairy- 
man will take chances in raising a heifer calf for milk purposes 
whose sire is either a beef bull or a mongrel. The necessity 
for using purebred sires to breed to common cows and the finan- 
cial advantage of such a policy was pointed out in Chapter IX., 
in which the breeding of beef cattle for the market was dis- 
cussed. The arguments there presented apply with equal force 
to the breeding of dairy cattle. 

Tests which strikingly illustrate the effect of a purebred 
sire in improving a herd of scrub dairy cows have been conducted 
at the Iowa Station* by Kildee and McCandlish. The results 
presented in the following table show the average yearly pro- 
duction of the original scrub cows and the greatly increased 
ability of their daughters and granddaughters sired by good 
purebred dairy bulls. All were fed and cared for alike, and no 
animals were weeded out during the experiment, so that the 
improvement secured can be credited only to the use of good 
purebred sires: 





Scrub dams 


Daughters 


Granddaughters 


Sire 


Milk 
lbs. 


Fat, lbs. 


Milk, 
lbs. 


Fat, lbs. 


Milk, 
lbs. 


Fat, lbs. 


Guernsey 

Holstein 

Jersey 


3687 
3782 
3463 


168 
176 
168 


5102 
6840 
5009 


241 
273 
264 


5810 

11127 

5411 


301 
420 

287 


Average of all 3660 


172 


5999 


261 


8402 


358 



If the results are expressed on the percentage basis, the 
percentage increase in production of the daughters and grand- 
daughters over the original scrub cows may be determined. 
The following table shows this percentage increase: 



Sire 


Daughters 


Granddaughters 


Milk 
per cent. 


Fat 
per cent. 


Milk 
per cent. 


Fat 
per cent. 


Guernsey 

Holstein . . 


38 
81 
45 


43 
55 

57 


58 

194 

56 


79 
138 


Jersey 


71 






Average 


64 


52 


.130 


109 



*Iowa Buls. 165 and 188. 



174 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 







Scrub Cow No 


56. 


Average yearly 


pro- 


duction 3874.6 lbs. of 1 


milk and 192.62 


lbs. 


of fat. 





Half-blood Holstein 
No. 77, out of Scrub 
No. 56. Average 
yearly production 
6955.5 lbs. of milk 
and 266.25 lbs. of fat. 



Three-quarter- 
blood Holstein No. 
233, out of half-blood 
Holstein No. 77. Av- 
erage yearly produc- 
tion 12804.2 lbs. of 
milk and 482.54 lbs. 
of fat. 







f# "SilWiMliiftiiti itfii i iii I i iii iiy w . ^ 




Fig. 50. What Good Purebred Sires Can Do. 

Improved production in two generations through the use of purebred 
Holstein sires. From the Iowa experiment 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 175 

The half-blood daughters, carrying 50 per cent, of improved 
breeding, showed an increase of 52 per cent, in butter-fat pro- 
duction as compared to their scrub dams. The granddaugh- 
ters, carrying 75 per cent, of improved breeding, showed an 
increase of 109 per cent, in butter-fat production as compared 
to their scrub grandams. In other words, the production of 
this herd was doubled in two generations through the use of 
good dairy sires. 

By going to the same breed each time a sire is selected, 
the dairyman soon acquires a herd of very high-grade cows, 
having only a very small percentage of scrub ancestry. Good 
grade dairy cows often rival their purebred cousins in produc- 
tion, and many have sold at prices considerably above $200. 
By using purebred sires, and by weeding out the poor producers 
and retaining the high-producing cows and their heifer calves, 
an inferior herd may be revolutionized and made to yield a profit. 
In this way the dairyman is enabled to raise his standards higher 
and higher, each year eliminating from his herd those cows 
which fail to reach the mark. Eventually a herd is built up 
in which every cow returns a large profit on the feed and care 
invested in her during the year. 

^: The following records made by the herd of Peder Peder- 
sen & Son in the Benson Cow Testing Association, Cedar Falls, 
Iowa, in three consecutive years show what may be accom- 
plished by the use of good sires, the keeping of records, weeding 
out the poor cows, and by proper feeding and management: 

Average Net income 
Average milk per cow butter-fat per cow over 

per cow, lbs. cost of feed 

1911 5665 pounds 207.7 $22.12 

Largest net income cow in herd 54 . 22 

1912 7060 pounds 251.9 53.96 

Largest net income cow in herd 106.30 

1913 9697.47 pounds 341.98 75.00 

Two largest net income cows, each 144. 00 

This herd was made up of grades and a few purebred Hol- 
steins, and the number of cows remained about the same during 
the three years reported. At the end of the first year it was 
found that 40 per cent, of the cows were unprofitable. They 
were sent to the butcher, and their places in the herd were taken - 
by two-year-old heifers sired by a purebred sire out of common 
cows. At the end of the second year, 30 per cent, of the cows 



176 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

were "weeded out" and their places taken by two-year-old grade 
heifers, one purebred cow, and one purebred two-year-old heifer. 
The end of the third year's work showed that the average milk 
production had been increased over 71 per cent., the butter-fat 
60 per cent., and the average net profit per cow increased from 
$22.12 to $75.00, or 239 per cent. 

Selection of the dairy bull. — If fifteen or twenty dairy bulls 
are brought before a judge recognized as competent, and he is 
asked to pick out the bull that will sire the highest-producing 
cows, he will be unable to do so with any degree of certainty 
by studying their individualities. He may easily eliminate 
some of them because of lack of constitution, weak masculinity, 
or because they show a decided tendency towards fleshiness. 
Having such faults, he is reasonably certain that they will not 
prove sure breeders, or that their heifer calves will not develop 
into high producers. Having eliminated certain ones, there 
will probably be several bulls remaining that have no serious 
faults in conformation, and among these it is mere guesswork 
to attempt to select the most successful sire. Whereas the beef 
bull carries his evidence of merit upon his back, the true value 
of the dairy bull can only be judged by the kind of cows in his 
ancestry, the kind of cows he sires, or by both. The judging 
of dairy bulls in the show ring is much less conducive to good 
results in the improvement of cattle than is the judging of beef 
bulls. 

As a general rule, when valuing a purebred animal, more 
emphasis should be placed upon individuality than upon pedi- 
gree; but the dairy bull is an exception. On a basis of 100 
points given to the bull's selection, it is conservative to state 
that 40 points should be allotted to his individuality, and 60 
points to the records of performance in his pedigree. All pure- 
bred dairy bulls have pedigrees, but in many cases no records 
were kept of the production of their female ancestors; in such 
cases the pedigree has no special significance, and little im- 
portance can be attached to it. When records of performance 
of the ancestors are available, the bull is said to have a "pedigree 
with performance," and to such a pedigree much attention should 
be given when selecting a bull. 

If the bull is matured and has been long enough in service 
so that he has heifers in milk, they furnish the best evidence of 
the bull's value as a breeder. In this connection, however, the 
dams of the heifers must be studied, as the seeming success of 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



177 



the bull may be very largely due to the excellence of the cows 
with which he is mated. If the dams are inferior and the heifers 
are good, all the more credit is due the sire. Most of the trade 
in purebred dairy bulls is in bull calves, for only rarely will a 
successful bull, as shown by actual trial, be offered for sale. 

The best indication of the future breeding value of a dairy 
bull calf is furnished by the milk and butter-fat records of his 



Imp. King of Ihe May 

Sire of: 
Langwater Dorothy . 
Langwater Hope, 

Langwater Rosie 

Langwater Princess- . 
Lang. May Queen. . 
Langwater Daisy .... 
Lang. May Rose . . . . 
Langwater Felois . . . 
Langwater Milkmaid. 
Sister Sue of Lang . 
Hayes Queen May. 

Also sire of seven A 



9001, A. R. 72. 

,,.,, Butt«r- 

Milk ,^j 

16099.70 781,65 

15078.80 773.59 

15083.00 724.23 

.12280.50 65119 

11275.70 592.84 

10710.30 557.55 

9212.50 530.06 

9445.90 529.81 

9550.20 510.05 

10290.70 469.60 

7904.30 406.94 
. R. sons. 



Dolly Bloom of Laogwater 15452, A. R. 
674. 

Record: 12024.50 lbs. milk; 632.34 lbs. 

butter-fat. 
Dam of : 
Lang. Dolly Bloom. 13250.80 714.60 

Also dara of one A. R. son. 



[imp. May Rose King 

Sire of: 

Rosa Rubra 

Florham Daisy 

May Rose Queen 

Comely Rose 
Queen of the Roses . 

Florham Pride 

Anton's May Rose. . . 
Southern Rose ... 
May Rose of Kent . 
Rutila's May Rose 
Queen of May Rose. 
Pride of Place . . 

And seven other A. 

Also sire of nine A. 



Milk 

.14329.15 788^89 

14876.60 747.08 

12548.30 667.19 

12861.15 641.79 

, 12223.25 604.94 

10860.60 591.85 

10778.70 591.55 

12774.10 583.00 

10779.65 556.56 

9701.10 556.40 

11448.90 539.03 

10035.50 531.26 

R. daughters. 

R. sons. 



Imp. Itchen Daisy 3d 15630, A. R. 100. 

Record: 13636.80 lbs. milk; 714.10 lbs. 

butter-fat. Sold for $4,000. 

Dam of: 

Florham Daisy 14876,60 748.08 

Langwater Dairymaid 13747.50 670.12 

Also dam of one A. R. son. 



Pocomoke 6075, A. R, 74. 

Sire of: 
Dolly Bloom of Lang. . 12024.50 632.34 

Nelly Jay 9576,10 477 27 

Carrie Bell 7605.00 373.38 

Also sire of three A. R. sons. 



Itchen Jewel 1112 E. G. H. B. 

3d prize, Bath and West, En^ana, 

1899. 
2d prize, Royal Counties, 1899. 

Sire of: Milk ^aWf" 

Royal Rose of Easton 9576.90 517.80 
1st at Royal Show, 1902. 

Claremont May Rose 8648 E. G. H. a 

2d prize over Island, 1895. 

1st prize over Island, 1896-7.8. 

1st prize in England, 1897. 

1st prize at nearly all^English shows of 

1890-91-92. 
1st and Championship, 1902. 
1st at London Dairy Show, 1901. 
Dam of Imp. May Rose 4th— 442 lbs. 

butter-fat. 

May Day 1132 E. G. H. B. 

1st prize Royal Counties Show, 1898. 

1st Bath and West, 1899. 

Sire of Suzerain, 3d prize Bath and 

West, 1900. 
H. C. Royal Counties, 1900. 
C. Royal, 1900; 2d East Kent, 1901. 
Grandsire of Melanie of Goodnestone 

3d— 7415.60 lbs. milk; 387.76 lbs. 

butter-fat. 

Daisy Gem 3341 E. G. H. B. 

John R. Gentry 4655. 

Half brother to GlenWood Boy of 
Haddon, A. R. 8, sire of Jedetta of 
Pinehurst— 15109.10 lbs. milk; 778.80 
lbs. butter-fat. Also sire of 25 other 
A. R. daughters, and 14 A. R. sons. 

Dosia 2d 10072. 



Dolly Bloom 12770, A. R. 40. 

Record: 17297,51 lbs. milk; 836.21 lbs. 

butter-fat. 

Dam of: 

Dolly Dimple 18808.50 876.34 

Dolly Bloom of Lang ,12024.50 632.34 

Also dam of two A. R. sons. 



Divan 5846, A. R. 98. 

Sire of: 

Dolly Bloom 17297.51 836.21 

Dolly Dillon 11867.30 532.21 

Belle Wilson 8434.40 423.55 

Also sire of two A. R. sons. 

Questa 11385. 

Dam of: 

Dolly Bloom 17297.51 836.21 

Dolly Bloom's sister 

Ray 7887.20 390.96 

Also dam of two A. R. sons. 



dam. If any of her female offspring have records of production, 
these also furnish valuable evidence. Next, the records of the 
cows sired by his sire should be studied, if such records are 
available. After that, the performance of the paternal and 
maternal grandams should be noted, together with the per- 
formance of their female offspring. The grandsires' lists of 
performers should be studied also, and, if possible, similar studies 
should be made of the great-grandams and great-grandsires. 
The fundamental principle underlying breeding is that "like 



178 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

begets like," and if the bull has a high-producing ancestry, 
high-producing sisters, and the other female members of his 
family are high producers, we are reasonably certain that he 
has inherited true dairy qualities of a high order which he will 
transmit to his offspring. 

As a fine example of a pedigree with performance, the 
pedigree of the Guernsey bull, May King of Ingleside 12558, 
is herewith presented. Such a bull commands too high a price 
to permit using him on grade cows, and the average dairyman 
seeking a sire cannot expect to obtain a bull with a pedigree equal 
to this one, although he may be able to secure a' son or grandson 
of such a bull at the price he can afford to pay. 

There is danger of over-emphasizing the importance of 
pedigrees when breeding any kind of live stock, and this is es- 
pecially true if records of tests are included in the pedigrees, as 
is the case with many trotting horses and dairy cattle. Some 
breeders have selected and mated their animals solely upon 
the basis of records, without any consideration of individuality. 
Animal breeding is not successfully supervised when the owner 
decides upon matings from pedigrees spread out before him in 
his office or by the parlor lamp. If this is done, and individ- 
uality is neglected, defects of conformation may gain a foothold 
in his herd and eventually defeat his plans. For instance, two 
animals may be selected for mating because of the excellence 
of their breeding; in other words, the mating looks good on 
paper; but weakness of constitution may be common to both 
of them, and if so, it is probable that their offspring will exhibit 
this defect in greater degree, so as to prevent the fulfillment of 
the offspring's inherited tendency to high production. 

Enough attempts at selecting and mating animals purely 
on the basis of records have met with failure to show that such 
procedure is very liable to wreck the herd. The breeder must 
refuse to be carried away by performance to the extent of buying 
merely a pedigree. Choose several good individuals, and then 
let the pedigrees be the basis for the final choice. A meritorious 
individual should accompany the meritorious pedigree. 

Advantages of dairy farming. — Dairy farming has the fol- 
lowing advantages: 

1. The dairy cow is well adapted to diversified and inten- 
sive farming where the farmer strives to produce the greatest 
possible income from a small acreage. Striking examples of this 
fact are found in Holland, Denmark, and the Island of Jersey. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 179 

2. If the manure is properly conserved and used, dairy- 
farming increases soil fertility. A ton of butter removes only 
64 cents' worth of plant food from the farm, while a ton of corn 
removes $6.56 worth of plant food. By feeding the crops and 
purchased supplementary feeds to dairy cows, the land may be 
made more productive. 

3. The dairy cow is a continuous source of revenue. The 
cream or milk checks come in at frequent and regular intervals. 

4. Skim milk is a most excellent feed for hogs and poultry. 

5. Good grade and purebred dairy cows meet with ready 
sale. 

It is also true that the dairy cow yields about six times as 
much edible solids in her milk for every 100 pounds of digestible 
nutrients consumed as the beef steer or mutton sheep in its 
carcass. The dairy cow is a more economical producer of food 
for human beings than is the steer, sheep, or pig. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 

Dual-purpose cattle are all-purpose or general-purpose 
cattle. They occupy a position midway between the beef and 
the dairy types, the aim being to combine the good points of 
both beef and dairy cattle as nearly as possible. The dual- 
purpose cow, however, does not give as much milk as the dairy 
cow, nor does she make as much beef as the beef cow. At present 
the demand for dual-purpose cattle is comparatively limited, 
although it has been predicted that many farms will eventually 
adopt the dual-purpose type as the one most profitable. It is 
also believed that those who maintain beef breeding herds will 
in the future pay more attention to the milking qualities of their 
cows. 

Perhaps no subject relating to cattle has aroused so much 
discussion as has the type, economic importance, and probable 
future of the dual-purpose cow. It has been argued that the 
day of general-purpose animals is past. It is said that this is 
a day of specialization in all things, and that better results and 
more profit are obtained from animals which do one thing and 
do it well, than are obtained from animals which do two or three 
things in a mediocre way. While it is true that the tendency 
in the live-stock world is more and more toward highly spe- 
cialized types of animals, it is also true that there are good argu- 
ments in favor of a dual-purpose type of cattle. Of these argu- 
ments, the best one is that there is need of a farmer's cow; that 
is, a cow for the farmer who is neither a beef producer nor a 
dairyman, but who wants to produce enough meat and milk 
for his own use. Such a man wants a cow that gives a good 
flow of milk, and yet one that has a strong enough beef tendency 
to produce a calf that will feed out well and make a good carcass ; 
in other words, this man wants a dual-purpose cow. There 
can be no doubting this argument and it was this demand which 
made the old-time Shorthorn the popular cow with farmers 
fifty or sixty years ago. 

Another argument frequently advanced in behalf of dual- 
purpose cattle is that beef production on high-priced land must, 
in the future, come from a dual-purpose type of cattle. On west- 

180 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



181 



ern ranches where land is cheap, a calf is all the return a cow 
need give in order to make her profitable, but the cornbelt far- 
mer on $100 and $200 land cannot conduct a business on the 
same basis as the western ranchman. It is argued that a farmer 
on high-priced land cannot afford to keep a cow that produces 
calves suitable for feeding into beef unless she pays for her 
board, in part at least, with a fair amount of butter-fat. It is 
argued that he can no more afford this than he can afford to 
keep mutton sheep which produce lambs, but no wool. The 
advocates of the dual-purpose cow claim that she will be the 




Fig. 51. The Dual-Purpose Type. 

Milking Shorthorn cow, Pansy 2d., first prize winner at Carlisle, England, 
in 1914. Imported and owned by Mr. J. J. Hill, St. Paul, Minn. 

salvation of future beef production. However this may be, 
changes will come gradually and it seems probable that the 
beef-type animal is destined to continue popular for some years 
to come. 

The methods of management where dual-purpose herds 
are kept vary considerably. Sometimes the production of 
beef is given most attention and the milking qualities of the 
cows are esteemed only as a source of feed for the calves. At 
the other extreme are herds managed as dairy herds, the beefiness 



182 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

of the cows making possible a good income from choice veal 
calves reared on skim milk and supplemental feeds. Neither 
of these plans represents true dual-purpose management. The 
dual-purpose cow is at her best when the plan calls for the sale 
of milk or butter-fat and the rearing of calves to be fed and 
marketed as fat steers and heifers, or sold into other hands for 
feeding. All of the cows may be milked, the butter-fat sold, 
and the skim milk fed to the calves; or half of the cows may be 
milked and the rest allowed to raise the calves. The writer 
knows of one successful herd of grade cows where the practice 
is to put four calves on one cow, the other three cows being milked. 
The development of the calves is somewhat restricted by this 
method, for they do not make as rapid growth nor present as 
good appearance as would be secured by more liberal feeding, 
but in this instance the financial return has justified the plan. 

It is considerable trouble to rear calves on skim milk, but 
it is being done with good results on many farms. The skim 
milk should be supplemented by oats, bran, corn meal, hay, 
and good pasture until weaning time, and the calf should be 
wintered on grain, silage, and hay. When weaned and placed 
on regular rations, skim-milk calves usually advance rapidly 
and often overtake calves reared on whole milk to such an ex- 
tent that they cannot be distinguished from the latter. 

Dual-purpose type. — Descriptions of the beef and dairy 
types having been given in detail, dual-purpose type may be 
described in a few words by comparisons. The true dual- 
purpose type of animal is distinguished from the beef animal 
by certain well-marked differences in form and appearance. 
The dual-purpose animal is not so wide as the beef animal, 
nor so smooth, and the fleshing is not so thick. The neck is 
longer, the withers are not so wide and rounding, the middle 
is less blocky and compact, and the legs are longer. The udder 
receives considerable attention and should be large, mellow, 
and of good shape. The dual-purpose cow should bear indica- 
tions of creditable performance at the pail. 

Compared with the dairy type, the dual-purpose animal 
shows more squareness and fullness of forequarters, more width 
and compactness of body, more fleshing and smoothness. The 
spring of rib is more pronounced, the back is wider, the withers 
are thicker, the shoulder is heavier fleshed and smoother, and 
the thigh and twist are much more heavily fleshed. Dual- 
purpose cows that give a generous milk flow will carry less 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



183 



flesh during the milking period, but when dry they take on 
flesh readily. Their calves have a reasonably good fleshing 
when fed for market, especially if sired by a beef- type bull. 

When dual-purpose cattle are brought into the ring at 
fairs and expositions, it is readily observable that marked varia- 
tions in type exist, ranging from near the dairy type to the lower 
limits of beef type. What is regarded as a typical dual-purpose 
animal by one man will not always suit another, but will be 
criticised as leaning too much toward the beef type or the dairy 
type. Some men accept a beef cow with a larger udder than 
usual as a typical dual-purpose animal; others have in mind a 
dairy cow showing more beefiness than common. In the show 




Fig. 52. The Dual-Purpose Type. 

Red Polled bull, Teddy's Best, thirty-two times a Champion, and a very 
noted sire. Owned by Jean Du Luth Farms, Duluth, Minn. 

rings of this country much dissatisfaction has arisen over the 
judging of dual-purpose cattle; some judges have apparently 
awarded the prizes upon the beef qualities of the animals shown, 
while other judges have leaned almost as such the other way. 
A judge at one show will select certain animals as prize winners, 
and at another show, with the same cattle on exhibition, an 
almost complete reversal will be made in the awards — hence the 
dissatisfaction. As time goes on, breeders are getting closer 
together in their ideals of a dual-purpose animal, although 
there can never be the uniformity of ideals which prevails among 



184 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

breeders of either beef or dairy cattle. This is true because 
beef and dairy types represent extremes, while the dual-purpose 
type is an average of these two, or represents the middle ground. 

Profits from dual-purpose cattle.— In an investigation into 
the methods and cost of growing beef cattle in the cornbelt 
states in 1914 and 1915, the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
obtained 596 records from farms in Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, 
Iowa, Missouri, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. "^ Farms 
where cows were kept for distinctly dairy purposes or where the 
herds were maintained only for the production and sale of pure- 
bred animals for breeding purposes were omitted. Records 
were procured on 14,634 cows and 621 bulls, and on 12,591 
calves produced from them, of which 2,023 were fattened for 
baby beef. Six distinct practices in beef production were noted, 
as follows: 

Beef. — Farms where all the cows are kept strictly for beef 
(not including farms producing baby beef). 

Baby beef. — Farms maintaining breeding herds for the 
production of high-grade calves which are fattened on the same 
farm and sold at from 12 to 18 months of age as baby beef. 

Dual-purpose. — Farms on which all of the cows are milked, 
and either cream or butter-fat sold, the calves being weaned 
at birth and raised on skim milk. 

Mixed. — Farms on which the best cows are milked, their 
calves being weaned at birth and fed skim milk. Calves from 
the other cows are allowed to run with their dams as in the 
beef group. 

Partially milked. — Farms on which the calves are not 
weaned, but on which a part of the milk is drawn from the cow, 
the calf taking the remainder. 

Double nursing. — Farms where some of the cows are milked 
and their calves given to other cows, the latter raising two calves 
each. 

The cost of calves at weaning time, the cost of raising 
yearlings, and the profit or loss on the yearlings was determined 
for each of the six groups. The accompanying table, showing the 
various factors that make up the cost of producing a yearling 
and summarizing the results of the investigation, indicates the 
economy of dual-purpose herds as beef producers. However, 
as this table is studied, it is well for the reader to keep in mind 



U. S. Dept. Agr. Report 111, by Cotton, Cooper, Ward, and Ray. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



185 



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186 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

the fact that no profits were allowed for the dairying practiced 
by the owners of the dual-purpose, mixed, partially milked, 
and double nursing herds; instead, the returns, including profits, 
from the sale of milk have been used to lower the cost of the 
calf. Robbing one department of a farm of profit in order that 
another department may be credited so as to show a profit may 
represent skillful book-keeping, but results based on such a 
method of cost accounting are somewhat misleading. In this 
case it should be remembered that dairying was conducted at 
cost, the profits being credited to beef production. 

The greatest item of expense in raising a calf to weaning 
time, except in the dual-purpose group, is the cow charge, or net 
cost of keeping a cow a year. The net cost of maintaining a cow 
varied greatly, depending largely upon the sale of milk products 
from cows that were milked. It was therefore lowest in the 
dual-purpose group. 

The cost of the calf at weaning time is lowest in the double- 
nursing group. While the cow charge was lowest in the dual- 
purpose group, the addition of the cost of feed and labor for the 
skim-milk calves made the cost of the calf somewhat greater 
than in the double-nursing group. 

The cost of the calf at one year was lowest in the double- 
nursing group. 

The calves in the dual-purpose group, although poorest in 
merit and value, ranked third in profit. 

The calves in the double-nursing group were relatively of 
good quality and showed the greatest profit. 

The data obtained indicate that the keeping of cattle for 
beef purposes alone is adapted to the more extensive types of 
farming, while the keeping of cattle primarily for beef purposes, 
but where an income is also obtained from milk products, is 
better adapted to the more intensive types of farming. 

The averages would seem to indicate that profits from rais- 
ing calves on cornbelt farms are very small. However, these 
facts must be taken into consideration : 

1. Good returns have been obtained for a large quantity 
of roughage which, had it not been utilized by live stock, would 
have been waste. 

2. A home market was provided for saleable crops. 

3. On many farms a large acreage suitable to pasture only 
has been utilized. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 187 

4. Profitable employment is provided for a season of the 
year when labor otherwise might be idle. 

5. A return is obtained for capital invested in equipment 
which, in many instances, were it not utilized by live stock, 
would return nothing. 

6. When the farmer merely breaks even he has at least 
made 6 per cent, interest on the money he has invested in the 
cattle business. 



PART TWO. 
SHEEP. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The United States ranks as one of the principal mutton- 
producing and wool-growing countries of the world. The sheep 
industry in America dates back to early times. It has exper- 
ienced more ups and downs, due to changing conditions and 
varying prices than has the cattle industry or the hog industry. 
At the present time the sheep business is in a transitional stage. 
The number and size of flocks in most of the western range 
states continue to decline. In the farming states increased 
interest in sheep and increased production are now noticeable. 
Lamb and wool production is a profitable business at the present 
time and promises to continue so, not only under range conditions 
but also in intensive farming. 

Lamb and wool production require a smaller use of grain 
feeds than is required with other kinds of live-stock farming. 
A majority of lambs are marketed at weaning time and without 
having had any feed other than the milk of their dams and a 
slight amount of grazing. The lamb carcass requires less fat 
to render it suitable for the table than is necessary in any other 
class of meat. This fact adapts sheep raising to sections that 
are not adapted to the production of grains but can furnish 
good pasturage and forage crops. Lambs born late in the sea- 
son, lambs raised by ewes which are not good milkers, and lambs 
raised under conditions which do not produce a good milk flow 
in the ewes go into the hands of feeders and consume consider- 
able grain, but their finish is largely produced from hay and 
other roughages of comparatively lower value. Breeding ewes 
require little grain, and good fleeces are produced without the 
use of concentrated feeds. 

Sheep have been advocated on the ground that no labor 
or attention is needed. It has been said that they are farm 
scavengers, that they will clear the farm of weeds. It is true 
that sheep will eat most weeds, and that farms which have a 
flock of sheep usually give evidence of that fact in cleaner fence 

189 



190 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

rows and corners and a tidier appearance generally. It is 
also true that sheep raising requires comparatively little labor. 
The labor cost per dollar's worth of wool or lambs is lower than 
in any other farm-animal product. It should be emphatically 
stated, however, that sheep will not do well unless they are 
given constant attention and the care necessary to maintain 
thrift, yet the amount of work required is by no means heavy 
except at lambing and shearing time. One competent man can 
care for from 300 to 500 ewes during winter. 

Sheep raising, properly managed, is profitable on the corn- 
belt farm, while the New England states, and large areas of cut- 
over timber lands in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota are 
suitable for sheep as soon as provision is made for the produc- 
tion of winter feed. Many millions of acres in this country 
not now in farms and which are largely unfit for the plow and 
not suitable for grazing by other animals, will eventually return 
a revenue in lambs and wool. The sheep's ability to prosper 
on grass and roughage, with little grain, gives it first call under 
these conditions. 

The advantages of sheep, as compared to other live stock 
on the farm, have been most ably presented by the late Prof. 
John A. Craig.* He calls attention to the following: 

1. Compared with cattle, sheep produce more liberally 
in proportion to what they consume. They consume more feed 
in proportion to their weight, and a larger proportion of what 
is eaten goes into increase. However, sheep are not so well 
fitted as cattle to utilize large quantities of coarse roughage. 

2. The form in which sheep manure is dropped and the 
way it is tramped into the soil insure a smaller waste than is 
possible under any other system of stock farming. The sheep's 
habit of Ijdng upon the highest spot of the field or pasture leaves 
the larger part of the droppings at the place where they are 
most needed. 

3. Sheep farming utilizes what would be otherwise waste 
land. 

4. They convert into mutton and wool much material 
that cannot be utilized by other animals. This is particularly 
true of grain lost in stubble. Volunteer growth or aftermath 
too scanty for other stock is just suited to the grazing habits 
of sheep. 



* Sheep Farming in North America, pp. 3-8. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 191 

5. Sheep are the best weed destroyers. Of the numerous 
plants regarded as weeds, cattle and horses eat about 50 per 
cent., while sheep eat over 90 per cent, of them. 

6. The income from wool and that from the lambs and 
mutton come in in different parts of the year, and it seldom 
happens that both products sell at bottom prices the same year. 

7. The wool clip is easily stored with practically no waste 
or deterioration if it is desirable to hold for a higher price. 

8. The returns come quickly. Lambs may be marketed 
eight months after the ewes are bred. 

9. The ewe's fleece usually pays for her keep. This puts 
the fat lamb on the market at low cost of production. 

10. With good management, the increase in the flock may 
be safely counted at one hundred per cent. 

Sheep breeders in the various countries have developed 
two distinct kinds of sheep — mutton sheep and wool sheep, 
the latter being commonly called fine- wool sheep. Mutton 
sheep naturally divide into two groups known as (1) long- or 
coarse- wool sheep, and (2) medium- or middle- wool sheep. 

Fine- wool sheep bear wool that is 1^ to 4 inches long after 
twelve months' growth, medium-wool fleeces vary in length of 
fiber from 2 to 5 inches, and the long-wool fiber measures 5 to 
12 inches. The fiber of the fine-wool fleece is very fine in dia- 
meter and has a large number of waves or crimps to the inch, 
usually from 16 to 22. The long-wool fiber is coarse and lashy, 
being rather straight and hairy in appearance. The fiber of 
the medium-wool fleece occupies a position between the fine- 
and long-wool fibers, but with fewer crimps per inch than the 
fiber of fine- wool sheep. 

The three groups are separated by other marked differences 
besides length and fineness of wool. Fine-wool sheep are usually 
of small or medium size, and have a rather narrow form, long 
neck, uneven top line, white face, more or less wrinkled skin, 
a compact fieece often dark on the exterior, poor mutton quali- 
ties, and active dispositions. Medium- wool sheep are medium 
to large in size, have a wide, compact, blocky, meat-producing 
form, straight top line, usually have brown faces, a smooth skin, 
a compact fleece that is light colored on the exterior, thick flesh, 
excellent mutton qualities, and active dispositions. Long- wool 
sheep are large, with blocky bodies, straight lines, rather up- 
standing, white face, smooth skin, shaggy light-colored fleeces 



192 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

hanging in long locks or curls, thick but somewhat coarse flesh, 
lay on much fat, and are more sluggish and indolent in their 
habits. 

The breeds of long-wool sheep are the Lincoln, Cotswold, and 
Leicester. The medium-wool breeds are the Southdown, Shrop- 
shire, Oxford Down, Hampshire Down, Suffolk, Dorset Horn, 
Cheviot, and Tunis. The breeds of fine-wool sheep are the 
American Merino, Delaine Merino, and Rambouillet. All of 
these breeds except the Merinos and the Tunis originated in 
Great Britain. The American Merino and Delaine Merino were 
developed in the United States, the Rambouillet in France, 
and the Tunis in the province of Tunis in Northern Africa. 

Although variations in fleece, size, form, and other points 
permit the division of all sheep into three groups, there are at 
basis only two types of sheep — mutton type, and fine-wool type. 
The former includes both the long- and medium-wool groups. 
The breeds of sheep are therefore classified according to type as 
follows: 

fLincoln 
Long-wool breeds ] Cotswold 



Mutton Type 



Medium-wool breeds ■ 



[Leicester 

Southdown 
Shropshire 
Oxford Down 
Hampshire Down 
Suffolk 
Dorset Horn 
Cheviot 
Tunis 

[American Merino 
Fine- Wool Type •! Fine-wool breeds \ Delaine Merino 



[Rambouillet 

The mutton-type sheep is chiefly valued on account of its 
ability to make good mutton economically, although the wool- 
producing ability of the mutton-type sheep constitutes an im- 
portant part of its value to the farmer. Some of the best mutton- 
producing breeds have failed to gain much popularity mainly 
because of their deficiency as wool producers. It is not expected 
that one type of sheep will excel in both mutton and wool pro- 
duction, any more than one type of cattle is expected to excel 
in both beef and milk production, yet it is important that the 
mutton-type sheep grow a fleece of good density, length, weight, 
.and quality. 

The fine- wool type is mainly a wool proposition. The 
American Merino is of no more value for mutton than are dairy 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 193 

cattle for beef. The Delaine Merino and Rambouillet have 
better mutton qualities, though not equaling the mutton breeds 
in this respect, and this largely explains their greater popularity 
as compared to the American Merino. 

The American farmer, and likewise the rangeman, has 
declared that the most profitable sheep to grow in this country 
is, as a rule, a combined wool-and-mutton type. Among the 
mutton breeds, and also among the fine-wool breeds, those 
which yield the most and best of both mutton and wool rank 
highest in popularity, while those breeds which are more highly 
specialized so as to be superior in one line of production and 
very inferior in the other are not so popular. The popularity 
of a breed depends also upon other factors such as constitutional 
vigor, prolificacy, quietness of disposition, feeding qualities, 
grazing qualities, ease of shearing, and early maturity, but first 
and fundamentally the breed must produce both a good carcass 
and a good fleece if it is to be popular with the farmer. Every 
breed has its place, however, and to eliminate all except two or 
three breeds from American farms and ranches would be poor 
policy. Some of the less popular breeds are highly valued for 
producing rams to use in cross-breeding or grading-up to produce 
the desired tj^pe. Other less popular breeds have special fea- 
tures which give them the preference under certain special con- 
ditions of climate, food supply, or method of management. 

Definition of Sheep Terms. 

Ram or buck. — Breeding male, any age. 

Ewe. — The female, any age. 

Lamb. — Any sheep under twelve months of age. 

Wether. — Unsexed male, castrated when a young lamb. 
The best age to castrate lambs is from 7 to 10 days old at the 
same time they are docked. 

Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far 
advanced toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident 
in head, neck, and forequarters. This constitutes coarseness 
in a market animal. 

. Shearliyig. — A yearling. 

Two-shear. — A two-year-old. 

Two-tooth. — A yearling. 

Four-tooth. — A two-year-old. 



CHAPTER XV. 
MUTTON TYPE. 

Although the breeds of sheep classed as mutton breeds 
may be grouped into two distinct classes — long-wooled and 
middle-wooled — and although the breeds within each class 
differ considerably in color markings, fleece, and appearance, 
nevertheless all of them belong to the mutton type. The follow- 
ing description applies particularly to sheep or lambs fattened 
for the market. 

The general appearance of the mutton-type sheep is almost 
identical with the beef type of cattle. The mutton sheep 
should be markedly short legged, broad, deep, and symmetrical. 
The top line and underline should be straight and parallel, and 
the top should be broad and level from end to end. The side 
lines should be straight, and the middle wide and deep, yet neat 
and trim. Leggy and rangy conformations are as objectionable 
in mutton sheep as in beef cattle. There should be pronounced 
blockiness of conformation, combined with neatness, fullness, 
and great smoothness of outline. 

The head should be short and broad, the mouth of ample 
width, the nostrils large, the face short, the eyes prominent and 
clear, the forehead broad, and the ears rather fine, short, neatly 
attached, and well carried. The mutton type does not have 
horns as a rule, the Dorset breed being the only exception. The 
head should have a clean-cut appearance, indicative of quality 
and good breeding. 

The neck should be short and plump, arched, trim at the 
throat, and should join the shoulders full and smooth. 

The shoulders should be compact, smooth, and nicely 
covered over with flesh, making the forequarters very even and 
smooth. The tops of the shoulders should come fairly well 
together and be rounded over with flesh. 

The breast ought to be prominent, broad, and filled out 
plump with flesh. A wide breast is an evidence of strong con- 
stitution, and plumpness of this part is one of the indications 
of proper finish and fatness in the market sheep. 

The chest should be very wide and deep, and have a full 
heart-girth. There should be considerable distance between 

194 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



195 



the front legs, and also between the shoulders, and no depres- 
sion of the side should exist just back of the shoulder. The 
front flanks should carry down deep and be well filled out. 

The front legs should be short and straight, the shanks 
fine, and the joints not too large. The knees show some ten- 
dency to come together, but this should not be marked. At- 
tention should be given to the pasterns which should carry up 
strong, and to the toes which should be well developed, strong, 
and point directly forward. 

The back furnishes one of the valuable cuts of the carcass. 
It should be very wide, short, and straight, and should be thickly, 
firmly, and evenly fleshed. When the hand is pressed down 
upon the back it should exhibit no dip or weakness, but carry 




IIZ\ 13 i^ W 




^4 



Fig. 53. Points of the Sheep. 



1. Mouth 

2. Nostril 

3. Face 

4. Eye 

5. Forehead 

6. Ear 

7. Neck 



8. Shoulder 

9. Breast 

10. Fore leg. 

11. Fore flank 

12. Top of shoulders 

13. Back 

14. Ribs 



15. Loin . 

16. Hip 

17. Rump 

18. Thigh 

19. Hind leg 

20. Pastern 



18 and 24. Leg of mutton 



21. Dew claw 

22. Foot 

23. Dock 

24. Twist 

25. Hind flank 

26. Belly 



up, level and strong. In thin sheep the backbone is marked by 
a sharp ridge, in well-fattened animals the back is smooth, the 
backbone being covered, while in very fat animals the flesh 
may be thickened on either side of the middle line to such an 
extent that a groove is found down the middle of the back in- 
stead of a ridge. 

The ribs must have a strong arch to give width to the back, 
and they should carry down deep to afford a large chest and 



196 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

good digestive capacity. They should be placed close together 
along the side, the last pair coming close to the hips. The cover- 
ing of flesh on the ribs should be thick, even, and firm. The 
side should be straight and even, the belly should be straight 
and trim, and the hind flanks should be well let down. 

The loin yields the highest priced cut of the carcass. Like 
the back, it should be very wide, straight, strong, and covered 
evenly with thick, firm flesh. The backbone should be covered. 
Sheep may be well covered over the back and poorly covered 
over the loin, therefore careful handling all along the top is 
necessary in order to judge of the fleshing. 

The hips should not be prominent; they should be well laid 
in and smoothly covered over with flesh. 

The rump ought to be long, level, and wide, the top line 
carrying out straight to the end of the body. One of the most 
common faults of mutton sheep is a poorly shaped hindquarter, 
the rump frequently rounding off or drooping on top, and the 
sides cutting in to give a peaked conformation. Squareness 
and fullness should characterize the hindquarter. The covering 
of flesh should be abundant, yet smooth and free from softness 
or bunches of gobby fat. 

The thighs and twist, often called the leg of mutton, should 
be broad and plump as viewed from the rear, and the fleshing 
should carry well down toward the hocks, as in beef cattle. The 
leg of mutton, loin, and back constitute the valuable parts of 
the carcass, and they must carry a high degree of fleshing. Wide 
variations in the development of thigh and twist will be found, 
although a maximum development is always demanded. 

The hocks and hind legs should be strong and placed well 
apart. When the hocks are close together, the thigh and twist 
usually lack a full development. Crooked, weak hocks, either 
badly sickled or bowed, are rather common and are very un- 
desirable. The legs should be short and straight, and show 
refinement of bone and joints. The hind pasterns are also 
given attention in judging, for it is by no means uncommon 
to find them broken down and weak so as to impair the useful- 
ness of the animal to a marked degree. They should carry up 
strong, so as to bring the weight full on the toes. 

The skin should be of a bright pink color and free from 
dark-colored spots. The pink color is an indication of health 
and thrift, while a white or bluish color shows an unthrifty 
condition. Some breeds excel in this respect, and others char- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



197 



acteristically show a rather dark color due to the presence of 
pigment in the skin, in which case the dark color is not necessarily 
an evidence of unthriftiness. The dark-faced breeds often have 
a pigmented skin over the body, and with this fault is often 
associated the fault of having black fibers in the fleece. 

The quality of the mutton-type sheep is shown by the fine- 
ness of the head and bone, fineness of the wool, and fineness and 
softness of the hair on the face and legs. Quality is also shown 
by the smoothness of the animal, both in frame and in fleshing. 
Coarse shoulders, an angular build, and uneven flesh show lack 




Fig. 54. Correct Type in the Fat Wether. 

Grade Shropshire, Grand Champion at the 1913 International. Bred 
and exhibited by J. & D. J. Campbell, Woodville, Ont., Can. Neat in form, 
excellent in quality, and thickly and firmly fleshed. His fatness, trim middle, 
and good quality insure a high dressing percentage. This sheep belongs to 
the medium- wool class. 



of quality in a mutton sheep. These are important features 
in either breeding or fat sheep. Quality and good breeding are 
usually associated. Well-bred animals respond best when fed 
and fattened for the market. The butcher likes quality because 
it insures high quality of meat, and indicates little waste when 
the sheep is killed and dressed. A sheep of good quality yields 
an attractive carcass with smooth, even outlines. 



198 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The condition, or fatness, of a sheep may be determined 
by an examination of six points, these being the spinal covering, 
the neck, the breast, the fore flank, the dock, and the purse. 
The first of these is by far the most important, as it insures a 
covering where it is most valuable, namely on the high-priced 
cuts. The covering over the back and loin should be such that 
the top is smooth and the backbone not easily felt. The neck 
and breast of a well-finished sheep are plump, the fore flank is 
well filled, the dock is found thick when grasped in the fingers, 
and the purse is well filled with fat. Sheep that have been 
over-fed often have bunches of soft fat at the end of the rump, 
and a blubbery mass of fat at the fore flank. Sheep that have 
much loose fat at the fore flank are referred to as "slipped," it 
being commonly, but erroneously, supposed that this condition 
is due to a very heavy formation of fat along the back which 
becomes excessive and slips down the ribs to the fore flank. 
The butcher sharply discriminates against such an excessively 
fat condition, and the breeder has found that slipped ewes are 
frequently barren. The market wants a thick, firm covering. 
Softness indicates a "wasty" carcass. Lambs very seldom 
become too fat, but yearlings and older sheep may be easily fed 
until they become soft and overdone. 

The style which some mutton sheep possess has an im- 
portance similar to style in beef cattle. Furthermore, feeders 
testify that the lamb or wether with stylish appearance and 
sprightly gait is usually vigorous and a good feeder, style being 
to some extent an evidence of constitutional vigor and thrift. 

The fleece of the mutton-type sheep is of secondary im- 
portance, yet constitutes an important item of value. The 
value of the fleece depends upon its length, weight, quality, and 
uniformity. Weight of fleece depends upon covering, density, 
length of staple, and the amount of oil, or grease, called "yolk." 
The quality of fleece refers in a strict sense only to fineness of 
fiber, but in a general way may also include softness, sound- 
ness, luster, color, cleanness, purity, and freeness. These var- 
ious factors of weight and quality will now be discussed. 

The covering of wool has reference to the completeness 
of covering over all parts of the body. Some animals are very 
devoid of wool on the belly and around the flanks. The breeds 
differ widely in the extent to which the poll, ears, face, and legs 
are covered with wool, such features forming a prominent part 
of some breed types. The tendency in recent years, especially 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



199 



with some breeds, has been to secure a more complete covering 
of wool, and thus produce a fleece of somewhat more weight. 
In all breeds, the under parts of the body, including the scrotum 
of the ram, should be well wooled. 

A dense fleece is one that is compact, or has a large num- 
ber of fibers growing on a square inch of skin. As much density 
is desired as is possible to attain. 

The length of fiber varies greatly among the mutton breeds, 
so that it is difficult to fix requirements for length of fleece for 




Fig. 55. Long-Wool Sheep. 

Lincoln ram, Champion at the Iowa State Fair. 
Arnold, Galesville, Wis. 



Owned by Mr. A. W. 



the mutton type in general. However, a length of less than 
3 inches for a year's growth should subject a mutton-type animal 
to criticism, and if it is less than 23^ inches the wool sells at a 
lower price per pound on the wool market, as it is then not 
adapted to the manufacture of worsted cloth. As a rule, the 
longest fleeces are the coarsest and most lacking in density; 
maximums of fineness, length, and density cannot be secured in 



200 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

one animal. The medium-wool breeds vary in length of staple 
from 2 to 5 inches, while the long-wool breeds vary from 5 to 
12 inches. 

The yolk is a variable feature and a highly important one. 
It is secreted by glands in the skin, and passes out over the 
fibers, giving them an oily coating that is valuable because it 
makes the wool soft, protects and preserves the fibers, and, by 
causing the fibers to lie even and regular, insures against mat- 
ting, or "cotting," of the fleece. A plentiful supply of yolk also 
tends to prevent the entrance of dust, chaff, and other foreign 
material into the fleece. Incidentally, the yolk adds weight 
to the wool, although an excessive amount of oil that merely 
adds weight to the fleece is not desirable. The yolk should be 
in a fluid condition and should be uniformly distributed through- 
out the fleece from skin to tip of fiber. It should not be so 
abundant as to collect in drops in the fleece, nor should any 
flakes of dried yolk be in evidence. 

The fineness of fiber, from the earliest days of wool grow- 
ing, has been esteemed one of the most important requirements 
of wool. It varies a great deal among the breeds of mutton 
sheep, and also among the individuals within a breed. It is 
not expected that the mutton type will produce a fiber with 
the high degree of fineness shown by the Merinos, yet as much 
fineness is wanted as may be had without sacrifice of weight or 
quantity of fleece. The crimp, or waved condition, of wool 
furnishes an easy and accurate measure of fineness. All wool 
is more or less crimped, and it is a fact that the finest wools are 
finely crimped, that is, have a large number of crimps per inch, 
while the coarsest wools are almost devoid of crimp, being lashy 
or broadly waved. The crimp of the medium- wool fleece should 
be fine, pronounced, and uniform from skin to tip of fiber. A 
single fleece yields several sorts of wool, differing considerably 
in fineness. The finest wool grows on the belly, shoulders, and 
back; that next in fineness, on the neck, breast, and along the 
sides, while the coarsest wool is found on the thighs and lower 
parts of the legs. 

Wool that has softness, yet is firm and elastic, is far more 
valuable than that which is dry, stiff, and harsh. On the other 
hand, mushy wool having a soft, lifeless feel with no recoil when 
handled is very often lacking in strength. Softness depends 
upon fineness of fiber and amount of yolk. Ill health, exposure 
to rough weather, or lack of feed results in loss of* softness. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 201 

The soundness of wool refers to its freedom from weak 
spots. Sickness, a sudden shock from a bhzzard, lack of feed, 
a rapid change from green to dry feed, or vice versa, and over- 
feeding often cause the secretion of wool to be lessened for a 
time, thus producing tender wool. Under the microscope the 
fibers are found to be narrow in those parts produced under 
adverse conditions. Yarn made from such wool will be lacking 
in strength. Sickness will often cause a distinct break in the 
fiber throughout the fleece. (See Fig. 87.) 

Wool is said to have luster when the fibers glisten as though 
thinly varnished. This feature is especially prized in long- 
wooled sheep. A luster wool takes a dye more readily than does 
a dull, or lusterless, wool. Furthermore, the luster is plainly 
apparent in the finished cloth, improving its appearance. 

The color of the wool fiber should be a clear white. The 
occurrence of brown or black fibers mixed in the fleece sub- 
jects the animal to much criticism. Such wools cannot be used 
in the manufacture of white goods or those of light shades. 
Unless the fiber has perfect whiteness, a rich, brilliant dye can- 
not be secured by the manufacturer. 

As regards cleanness, all sorts and conditions of fleeces 
are found, ranging from those above criticism, to those that 
are a mass of burs, sand, bits of straw, manure, and other rub- 
bish — the whole fleece being matted together and constituting 
a product of no commercial value. Cleanness depends mostly 
upon the conditions under which the sheep are kept, although 
some fleeces, on account of their oiliness and density, tend to 
keep free from foreign material, while others, on account of their 
open, dry, fluffy character, offer no resistance to the entrance 
of foreign matter. 

By purity of fleece is meant its freedom from hair, called 
"kemp," and from dead fibers. With unfavorable conditions 
of keep and inferior breeding there is often a reversion of the 
fleece to the covering worn by early sheep; that is, hair begins 
to appear in place of wool. Dead fibers and kemp do not absorb 
dyes, hence they injure the cloths into which they find their way. 

The fleece is said to have freeness when the locks and fibers 
are not entangled, but part off readily from one another. When 
the fibers are tangled, or matted together, the fleece is said to 
be "cotted." 

A fleece with uniformity is one having sameness in char- 
acter throughout. Although there is a natural tendency for 



202 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

the wool on different parts to vary in density, length, and fine- 
ness, the aim of the breeder is to produce a fleece as nearly 
uniform throughout as possible. 

Age from the teeth. — The teeth are a fairly reliable indica- 
tion of the age of a sheep. The lamb has eight temporary 
incisors, or milk teeth, in the lower jaw. There are no incisors 
in the upper jaw. At 14 months of age, the middle pair of milk 
teeth is supplanted by a pair of larger, permanent incisors. At 
2 years, the second pair of permanent incisors appears; at 3 
years, there are three pairs; and at 4 years, all eight permanent 
incisors are in place. At five years, the teeth show more width 
between, and at six, the corner teeth may be broken out or the 
mouth may show signs of wear. Broken-mouthed sheep have 
their usefulness much impaired, and should not be kept unlesr 
for special reasons. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
THE MUTTON CARCASS AND THE PELT. 

Mutton and lamb supply a wealthier class of consumers 
than beef, pork, or veal. Lamb is ordinarily considered some- 
thing of a delicacy, while beef and pork are looked upon as staple 
articles of food. For this reason, the American meat industry 
was not much concerned with mutton and lamb until rather 
recent years, or since the country has become more prosperous 
and wealthy. The proper handling of mutton and lamb necessi- 
tates more careful and quick slaughtering than is required in 
the case of beef or pork, and good refrigeration facilities are 
also very essential. The public taste for mutton and lamb 
was not created until the development of the refrigerator car 
nor until the erection of large-scale chill rooms was made possi- 
ble by artificial refrigeration. The year 1875 marked the advent 
of these great aids to the packing business. Mutton differs from 
pork and beef in that it is strictly a fresh meat product and 
does not lend itself to salting, pickling, smoking, or drying as 
do pork and beef. Hence mutton became a world commodity 
only after the development of artificial refrigeration and re- 
frigerated transportation. Still another reason for the com- 
paratively recent demand for mutton and lamb is found in the 
fact that, up to 1870, the great majority of all sheep in America 
were either purebred or grade Merinos. Good mutton became 
plentiful only after the use of mutton rams became general on 
farms and ranges. 

Lamb is usually superior to mature mutton in flavor and 
general palatability, and the demand for lamb far exceeds the 
demand for mutton ; the wholesale trade consists of two or three 
times as much lamb as mutton. During the past fifteen years 
the wholesale trade in lamb and mutton has increased to such 
an extent as to have doubled during that period; this may be 
partly due to general prosperity and a larger housewife's allow- 
ance, and partly to an improvement in the quality of lamb and 
mutton through better methods of slaughtering and handling. 

Slaughtering. — Sheep purchased by packers are driven to 
the packing plant and allowed to rest a few hours, because ani- 
mals killed while in an excited condition do not bleed out thor- 

203 



204 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

oughly. They are then driven into a small shackling pen, and 
a shackle is placed around the hind leg. Two at a time, the sheep 
are raised by a large revolving wheel to a point overhead where 
the shackle automatically unhooks from the wheel and starts 
down a gently inclined rail. The animal moves to the "sticker," 
who quickly dispatches the sheep by a single thrust of a double- 
edged knife, one man killing 600 to 700 sheep .per hour. After 
passing through many hands, the carcass reaches the cooler, 
the dressing requiring about twenty-six minutes. 

Method of dressing. — Prior to the World War, a number of 
styles of dressing sheep and lambs were used, but during the 
period of the war, as a conservation measure, the U. S. Food 




Fig. 56. Killing Sheep at Chicago. 

Administration instructed all packers that sheep and lambs 
must be dressed by the plain or round method, and without 
caul or pluck. This method of dressing, which is the most 
economical, has been continued since the war to the present 
time, and there is no indication that the other styles of dressing 
will be practiced in the future. Plain- or round-dressed sheep 
and lambs have the pelt, head, and toes removed, and the fore 
legs are folded at the knees. They are opened from the 
cod or bag to the breast, and are split through the breastbone. 
A spread stick is placed in the breast to hold it open and properly 
shape the carcass. 

Formerly, in dressing the lowest grades of mutton and most 
lambs, the caul (a fatty membrane investing the internal organs) 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 205 

was wrapped about the legs and laid over the inside of the carcass 
thus improving the appearance, preventing drying out, and, in 
some cases, furnishing the fat necessary for proper cooking of 
the meat. The caul contains considerable fat, and as it was 
usually discarded by the retailers of mutton and lamb, the Food 
Administration rightly designated this style of dressing as waste- 
ful and caused it to be discontinued. Cauls are now sent to the 
rendering tank for the extraction of fats and oils. The pluck 
consists of the heart, lungs, liver, windpipe, a portion of the 
diaphragm, or "skirt," and more or less adhering fat. For- 
merly, most lambs were sold "pluck in," and sheep were usually 
sold "pluck out." The pluck is now used principally in the 
manufacture of different kinds of sausage. 

The oflfal. — In the plain- or round-dressed style of dressing, 
the sheep loses the following parts in the order named: — blood, 
head, pelt, internal organs, and toes. The pelt is the skin with 
the wool on, and it is a valuable product. 

The dressing percentage. — From what has been said of 
slaughtering and dressing, it is apparent that in order to dress 
a high percentage of carcass, sheep must be (1) light in pelt, 
(2) fat, and (3) neat in form, or free from paunchiness. The 
dressing percentage of sheep is not so important as that of cattle, 
because the waste has a higher value than the waste from cattle, 
on account of the high value of the pelt. If a sheep is fat in 
condition, and neat and trim in form, it will tend to dress high, 
but the pelt should be as heavy as is consistent with the pro- 
duction of mutton of high quality. As a general rule, the choicest 
sheep and lambs, from a carcass standpoint, do not wear heavy 
pelts, although a heavy pelt in itself is valuable, as will be shown 
later, and between two sheep otherwise equal, the one with the 
heavier pelt will bring the higher price on the market, even though 
its heavier pelt lessens its dressing percentage to some extent. 
Sheep and lambs range in dressing percentage from 40 to 65 
per cent., but ordinarily dress from 45 to 55 per cent. Sheep 
and lambs are combined in the census statements of meat animals 
slaughtered in the United States. Their average live weight 
for the four years 1899, 1904, 1909, and 1914 was 84, 86, 81, and 
79 pounds. Their average dressed weight was 43, 43, 41, and 
39 pounds. Their average dressing percentage was 51.2, 50, 
50.6, and 49.36 per cent, respectively. Mutton carcasses usually 
weigh from 45 to 85 pounds, while most lamb carcasses weigh 
from 35 to 50 pounds. 



206 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The wholesale cuts. — The following diagram represents a 
side view of a carcass of lamb or mutton, the dotted lines in- 
dicating the location of the wholesale cuts. 

The leg and loin together are called the saddle, and the 
combined short rack, chuck, and brisket are called the rack. 
The saddle and rack are almost equal in weight. One rib is 
left on the loin. The short rack includes from 9 to 11 pairs of 




Fig. 57. Wholesale Cuts of Mutton. 

1, Chuck; 2, short rack; 3, breast; 4, loin; 5, leg; 1 and 3, stew; 1, 2, and 
3, rack; 4 and 5, saddle. 

ribs, depending on how the carcass is divided between short 
rack and chuck. The chuck and brisket are usually sold to- 
gether as one cut, called the stew. In average 45-pound car- 
casses of lamb and mutton, round dressed, and pluck out, the 
weights of the various wholesale cuts, their wholesale prices per 
pound, and total values are as given in the following table: 



Wholesale cuts 


Wts. 
in 
lbs. 


Wts. 

in 

per cent. 


Price pe 
Lamb 


r pound 
Mutton 


Total va 
Lamb 


iue of cut 

Mutton 


Leg 


13.7 
9.6 
6.4 

15.3 


30.5 
21.3 
14.2 
34.0 


Cents 
34 

39 M 

49 >^ 
23K 


Cents 

28^ 
313^ 
36^ 
16K 


$4.66 
3.79 
3.17 
3.60 


$3.90 


Loin 

Short rack (10 ribs). 
Stew 


3.02 
2.34 
2.52 






Saddle 


23.3 
21.7 


51.8 

48.2 


36M 
31M 


293/i 

223^4 


8.45 
6.77 


6.92 


Rack . . . 


4.86 






Totals 


45.0 


100.0 


331 


26 J 


$15.22 


$11.78 







High-priced and low-priced cuts. — The average price for 
the entire lamb carcass is 33 % cents per pound, while the mutton 
carcass averages 26 K cents per pound. As in the beef carcass, 
the back, loin, and hindquarter yield high-priced cuts, while 
the breast and belly, constituting the chuck and brisket cuts, 
are low in price because they lack thickness, the quantity of 
flesh elements being relatively small. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 207 

Carcass classes and grades. — Carcasses of sheep and lambs 
are classified and graded as follows: 

Classes Sub-classes Grades 

[Lambs Choice, good, medium, common, culls 

[Yearlings Choice, good, medium 

[Wethers Choice, good, medium, common 

MUTTON \ Ewes Choice, good, medium, common, canners 

Bucks Good, medium, common 



LAMB 






The following wholesale prices* indicate the comparative 
values of the above classes: 

Special Selected Round-Dressed Lambs, 

pluck out 30 to 40 lbs 34 1^ cents per lb. 

Good Lambs, Round-Dressed, pluck out . . .30 to 40 lbs 33% cents per lb. 

Medium Lambs, Round-Dressed, pluck 

out 30 to 40 lbs 32% cents per lb. 

Common Lambs, Round-Dressed, pluck 

out 25 lbs 32 Ji cents per lb. 

Yearling Lambs, Round-Dressed, pluck 

out 40 to 45 lbs 31% cents per lb. 

Wether Sheep, Round-Dressed, pluck out. . .45 to 55 lbs 26% cents per lb. 

Ewe Sheep, Round-Dressed, pluck out 45 to 60 lbs 25% cents per lb. 

Common Sheep, Round-Dressed, pluck out 18% cents per lb. 

Qualifications of a good carcass. — The value of the carcass 
depends chiefly upon (1) form, (2) quality, (3) covering, (4) 
weight, and (5) maturity. These various factors will now be 
discussed. 

1. Form. — The essential points of desired shape are good 
width in proportion to length, compactness, and smooth, even 
outlines. This implies a thick loin, broad back, well-fleshed 
ribs, a full, thick middle from shoulder to leg, plump, thick 
legs filled down well, and smoothly covered shoulders. The 
most common faults of form are long, slender legs, narrow backs, 
lack of development over ribs and loin, and too much paunch, 
or belly. Long necks in ewes, and heavy "bucky" necks, shoul- 
ders, and briskets in wethers are objectionable. 

2. Covering.— It is essential that the carcass be smoothly 
and evenly covered with fat, because of its influence on the 
appearance of the dressed sheep, the quality of meat, and the 
shrinkage both in storage and in cooking. Only in the most 
highly finished sheep are the legs and shanks completely cov- 
ered. The kidney fat should be well developed, but not exces- 



* Wholesale price list of a leading Chicago packer, March, 1919. 



208 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

sive. A light kidney usually indicates lack of finish, while a 
very heavy one is evidence of overdone condition or uneven 
distribution of fat. The purse, udder, rump, flanks, and brisket 
are other points at which the amount of fat is plainly apparent, 
but it should not be excessive on any of these parts. The lowest 
grades have practically no outside fat, the amount of covering 
varying more or less directly with the grades of mutton from 
common to choice. The external and kidney fat should be firm, 
brittle, and white. As with beef, the English consumer desires 
fatter mutton than would suit the American trade. 

3. Quality. — The term "quality" is here used somewhat 
broadly, to include not only refinement of bone and fineness 
of texture of flesh, but also color of lean and fat. The flesh 
should be firm and fine grained, without the stringy, coarse 
texture of aged or inferior mutton. The color of 'flesh varies 
from light pink in lambs to dull red in mature mutton, and is 
less variable than in beef. The fat should be clear and white. 
General quality is more important in mutton and lamb than in 
other branches of the meat trade, on account of the custom of 
using the carcasses for display purposes in retail markets. 

4. Weight. — This is of more importance in grading mut- 
ton than in grading beef, as it is often a strong indication as to 
whether a carcass is a lamb, yearling, or mature sheep. The 
extreme ranges in weights of carcasses are, lambs, 15 to 50 pounds; 
yearlings, 40 to 60 pounds; wethers, 40 to 120 pounds; bucks, 
45 to 200 pounds; ewes, 50 to 200 pounds. The most desired 
weights for a lamb carcass are 40 to 45 pounds; for mutton car- 
casses, 50- to 65-pound weights are most desired. As with beef, 
heavy carcasses are demanded by hotels, restaurants, and dining 
cars. 

5. Maturity.— As has been mentioned, the demand for 
lamb far exceeds the demand for mutton, and the price of lamb 
has been shown to be considerably higher. The packers' inter- 
pretation of the word "lamb" is broader than the ordinary 
understanding of the term, for both lambs and yearlings yield 
a "lamb" carcass. Mutton carcasses are those of wethers two 
years old or over, ewes, bucks, and stags. The maturity of the 
carcass may be easily determined with a fair degree of accuracy 
from the bones; in lambs the brisket is soft and red, and the 
ribs and shank bones are colored with blood vessels; in mature 
sheep the bones are white and hard. However, the break- 
joint furnishes the best means of distinguishing lambs and year- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 209 

lings from mature sheep. The break-joint or lamb-joint is a 
temporary cartilage which forms in the head of the shank (shin 
bone) immediately above the ankle. In dressing lambs, year- 
ling wethers, and some yearling ewes, the foot can be broken 
off at this cartilage, giving the end of the shank a saw-tooth 
shape. In lambs the broken surface is smooth and moist, and 
in yearlings it is more porous and dry. The shanks of mature 
sheep will not "break," because the cartilage is knit or ossified, 
and the foot is taken off at the ankle instead, making a "round- 
joint." Shanks of female or ewe sheep outside the lamb class 
are, as a rule, too mature to break. Consequently, 80 to 90 per 
cent, of "yearling lamb" carcasses are wethers, the remainder 
being ewes and a small proportion of bucks and stags. Yearlings 




Fig. 58. Round-Joint and Break-Joints. 

In dressing mature sheep, the feet are taken off at the ankle, leaving a 
round-joint on the end of the shank bone. Immediately above the ankle 
in immature stock is a temporary joint, called the break-joint, at which the 
feet are removed. Thus the head of the shank bone as well as the foot is 
removed, leaving the saw-toothed break-joint on the end of the shank bone. 
As the animal matures, the break-joint ossifies or knits. Pincers are some- 
times used to crush off those which are partly ossified. This leaves an im- 
perfect break-joint. The shank bones of mature sheep will not break. At 
the left above is a round-joint, at the right a true break-joint, and in the 
center a crushed break-joint from a nearly mature sheep. 

substitute for genuine lamb, and we see that they may easily 
do this because they possess the break-joint. 

Goat carcasses. — Dressed goats are occasionally sold in 
connection with mutton and lambs, and are frequently sub- 
stituted for them, especially in the retail markets. They are 
similar to the lowest grades of western sheep in form, quality. 



210 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

and finish. Long shanks, coarse, dark flesh, long necks, and 
thin caul, however, render them quite easily distinguished 
from sheep carcasses. 

The Value of the Pelt. 

The market value of a mutton animal rests not only upon 
the carcass it yields, but also upon the pelt. Information has 
been given out from various sources that buyers of sheep for 
the packers prefer animals wearing light pelts. It has been 
said that the slaughtering departments of packing houses with- 
out exception dispose of sheep pelts at a fixed price per pelt, 
consigning them to the wool-pullery department of their own 
plant, or to some independent pullery. Buyers have been re- 
ported to prefer light-wooled lots in order to obtain high dress- 
ing percentages; it has been said that buyers have no particular 
interest in the welfare of their own pulleries, or in other firms 
that buy the pelts for pulling. Farmers have been advised 
that the highest market price is obtained for sheep and lambs 
that are light in pelt and which consequently dress high. 

Can it be possible that the packer, with all his genius for 
the utilization of by-products, is overlooking such an important 
item as wool? If the shank bones of cattle may be profitably 
converted into buttons and other articles, is it not inconsistent 
and unbusinesslike to discount well-wooled lots of sheep? With 
wool worth 25 to 50 cents per pound, is it not strange that the 
buyer should refuse to bid higher on a well-wooled band of 
sheep than upon a lot with light fleeces, other things being 
equal, especially as the fleece is secured at the live-weight price 
of the animal, namely 10 to 20 cents per pound? In handling 
thousands of sheep, the wool reaches a considerable valuation. 
If light pelts are wanted, why do shorn sheep sell at a discount? 

Such questions as these led the writer to make an investi- 
gation which included interviews with the principal buyers 
at Chicago, and an inspection of a modern wool-pulling estab- 
lishment owned by one of the packing firms. It was found 
that a few buyers do give preference to light-pelted lots, but 
that class of buyers is decidedly in the minority. Swift, Ar- 
mour, Wilson, and New York butchers have for some time 
realized the added value of a heavy fleece, and this has enabled 
them, in many instances, to outbid competing firms who con- 
sider only the dressing percentage as an index of the value of 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 211 

sheep for slaughter. The fact that New York butchers have 
been able to dispose of pelts profitably very largely explains 
their survival in the face of keen competition with packers. 

The slaughtering departments of those packing houses 
equipped with wool pulleries are credited each day with the 
value of the pelts sent from the killing floor. The value per 
pelt varies, depending upon (1) size of pelt, (2) weight of fleece, 
(3) quality of fleece, (4) cleanness of fleece, (5) amount of grease, 
(6) color of wool, and (7) thickness of skin. On this basis the 
value per pelt at the present time (March, 1919) ranges as low 
as 80 cents for lambs, and as high as $6.50 for sheep pelts in full 
fleece, depending mostly upon age, breeding, and season of 
the year. The average price of Chicago pelts is now about 
$3.90 per pelt. This is extremely high, due to the present 
high values of wool and skins. The value of the pelt plays an 
important part in determining the value of a sheep to the packer. 
The buyer's appreciation of the value of the pelt results, in most 
instances, in a much fairer price than would otherwise be paid. 

Packing houses and other wholesale butchers not equipped 
with wool pulleries have two methods of disposing of the pelts; 
they may either contract them in advance at a fixed price per 
pelt, or they may allow them to accumulate and then solicit 
bids. In the latter case, the bidders make an examination and 
the pelts sell on their merits. In the former case, the packer or 
butcher has no incentive to pay a premium for well-wooled sheep, 
but, on the contrary, it is to his advantage to select those with 
light pelts. One prominent sheep buyer on the Chicago market 
designated the contract plan as "slipshod," and he stated that 
"eventually it must cease as competition becomes more keen." 
He also said, "I instruct my men to consider wool as well as 
meat, and when they make bids, you may be sure they have 
es1?imated the value of the pelt as well as the carcass." 

Pelts are most valuable in the spring just before shearing 
time. Shorn sheep sell at a discount because the wool cannot 
be pulled at a profit until it has a growth of three-quarters of 
an inch or more. When the staple measures less than this, the 
pelts are tanned with the wool on, and the price received is small 
compared with pelts which can be pulled. The time of shearing 
marks the close of winter and the opening of pasturage, hence 
shorn sheep are often gaunt, and this is another reason for the 
lower price. 



212 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Pulled wool has the same uses as ordinary clipped wool. 
The weight of wool from an average pelt is 4 to 5 pounds. This 
seems a low figure, but the pelts are scrubbed before pulling, 
which takes out nearly all the dirt and grease, and causes a 
decided loss in weight. 

After the wool is pulled, the skins are prepared for the 
tannery. Untanned sheep and lamb skins are worth from $5.50 
to $17.00 per dozen, with an average of $7.25 per dozen for lamb 
skins and $8.50 for sheep skins. The value depends upon the 
size, quality, and thickness. The Merino yields a thin, porous 
skin which makes a leather that scuffs easily and wears out very 
quickly. These bring the lowest price. The best-wearing and 
highest-priced sheep leather is made from skins of the long- 
wooled breeds. Sheep leather is used for making cheap shoes, 
shoe linings, gloves, bags, book bindings, cheap saddles, suit 
cases, sweat bands for hats, and many other articles. Chamois 
skins are now made entirely of sheep skins. Goat skins are much 
in demand for furniture leather and are more valuable than 
sheep skins, the best untanned bringing $21.00 per dozen. They 
average a little larger in size than sheep skins and wear much 
better. 

By-Products of Sheep. 

The by-products from the slaughter of sheep may be classed 
as edible and inedible. The edible by-products include the 
tongue, which is used for cooking or sausage; the pluck, which 
is usually ground up and used in different kinds of sausage; and 
the paunch, about one-half of the paunches being used for "tripe," 
made by boiling and pickling the paunches. 

Because of the high value of the pelt, the inedible by-pro- 
ducts of the sheep are more valuable than those of the steer or 
the hog, considering their proportion to the carcass. The bones, 
stomach, and any trimming are tanked, thus extracting fats afid 
oils, and the residue is treated to make glue. The final residue 
is made into tankage and fertilizer. The blood, dried and 
ground, makes blood meal and fertilizer. Hard bones yield 
bone charcoal for bleaching purposes, black pigment for paint, 
shoeblacking, etc., bone dust for fertilizer, vitrified bone for 
making glass, cement for billiard balls, and knife handles, combs, 
buttons, and other articles. The intestines, windpipe, and 
bladder are cleaned and made into sausage casings. Musical 
strings, clock cord, and surgical ligature for sewing up wounds, 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 213 

as well as casings for little sausages, are made exclusively from 
the intestines of sheep. A class of oleo oil is made from the 
better grade of mutton tallow, and enters into the composition 
of oleomargarine. Inedible greases are used in soaps. Some 
valuable chemicals used in medicine are obtained as by-products 
from sheep. Among these are thyroidin, used as a cure for 
cretinism, and suprarenalin, a powerful astringent used in cases 
of severe bleeding. More than 130,000 sheep are required to 
make a pound of suprarenalin. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

SHEEP MARKETS AND MARKET CLASSIFICATION. 

The census of 1910 estimated that 14,724,699 sheep and 
lambs and 285,553 goats and kids were slaughtered for food in 
the United States in 1909. From reports of the Census Bureau 
it is estimated that 83 per cent, of the sheep and lambs marketed 
in the United States pass through the large central markets, 
13 per cent, are sold for local slaughter, and only 4 per cent, 
are slaughtered on farms and ranges. The corresponding per- 
centages for goats and kids are 12, 46, and 42. The U. S. Bureau 
of Markets and Rural Organization* conducted an investigation 
in 1915 which indicated that 43 per cent, of sheep and lambs are 
marketed in the fall, 13 per cent, are marketed in winter, 18 per 
cent, are marketed in the spring, and 26 per cent, are marketed 
in summer. Maximum receipts occur in September and October, 
at which time large numbers of western sheep and lambs arrive 
at the markets. Minimum receipts are usually registered in 
May.- 

The fourteen largest sheep markets and their total receipts 
during the year 1918 were as follows: 

1. Chicago 4,629,736 8. St. Paul 630,203 

2. Omaha 3,385,696 9. Pittsburg 552,848 

3. Kansas City 1,667,463 10. St. Louis 536,406 

4. Denver 1,651,759 11. Salt Lake City 423,664 

5. Buffalo 903,553 12. Sioux City 387,423 

6. St. Joseph 827,489 13. Fort Worth 334,596 

7. Pueblo 761,959 14. Cleveland 287,422 

The Chicago sheep market is easily the largest in the world. 
The total value of sheep and lambs received there during 1918 
was $57,273,848. Their average value per head was $12.37. 
Their average live weight was 78 pounds. Their average price 
per cwt. was $15.86. Of the 4,629,736 sheep received, 3,424,526 
were slaughtered by Chicago packers, and the remaining 1,205,210 
were shipped out alive. Of the latter number, 237,204 were 
shipped to other points for slaughter, and 967,996 were bought 
for feeding purposes and sent to the country. 



= U. S. Dept. Agr. Report 113, p. 19, by Hall, Simpson, and Doty. 

214 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 215 



At Chicago, during 1918, Swift & Co. slaughtered 1,205,835 
sheep; Armour & Co., 1,078,190; Morris & Co., 520,531; and 
Wilson & Co., 517,938. These four companies slaughtered 97 
per cent, of all sheep killed by Chicago packers in 1918. 

The commission charge for selling straight carloads of 
sheep or goats at Chicago is 20 cents per head, with a minimum 
charge of $10.00 and a maximum of $12.00 on single-deck cars, 
and a minimum of $15.00 and a maximum of $18.00 on double- 
deck cars. On less than 40 head of sheep or goats shipped in 
one car, the commission charge is 25 cents per head. The charge 
for yardage is 7 cents per head. 

Market Classes and Grades of Sheep. 

The market classes of sheep are three in number, theu- 
names indicating the use to which the sheep in each class are 
put. These are (1) mutton sheep, (2) feeder sheep, and (3) 
breeding sheep. Each of these classes is divided into sub-classes, 
and these are again divided into grades. W. C. Coffey of the 
Illinois Station* made a detailed study of the market classifica- 
tion of sheep at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, and outlines 
the market classes, sub-classes, and grades as follows: 



Classes 



MUTTON SHEEP 

(Native and Western Sheep) 



Sub-classes 



Grades 



FEEDER SHEEP 
(Western Sheep) 



BREEDING SHEEP 

(Native and Western Sheep) 



MISCELLANEOUS 



Lambs Prime, choice, good, 

medium, common or 

culls. 

Yearlings Prime, choice, good. 

Wethers Prime, choice, good, 

common. 
Ewes Prime, choice, good, 

medium, common or 

culls. 
Bucks and Stags. . .Choice, good, common. 

Lambs Fancy selected, choice, 

good, medium, com- 
mon. 

Yearlings Choice, good, common. 

Wethers Choice, good, medium, 

common. 

Ewes Choice, good, medium, 

common. 

Ewes Fancy selected, choice, 

good, common. 
Bucks (Not graded.) 

Hot-House Lambs 
Throw Outs 
Dead Sheep 
Goats 



* HI. Bui. 129. 



216 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The division of the sheep in each class into sub-classes is 
determined either by age or sex. The division of the sheep in 
each sub-class into grades depends upon their comparative merits 
and faults and is more arbitrary than the division into classes 
and sub-classes. 

Native and western sheep. — Before taking up a description 
of the various classes, sub-classes, and grades, it is necessary 
to explain the differences between native sheep and western 
sheep. Broadly speaking, native sheep are those kept in small 
flocks on the farms of the central, southern, and eastern states, 
while western sheep are those coming to market from large bands 
on the ranges of the western states. There is also a difference 
in the breeding; western sheep have a large proportion of Merino 
blood, whereas natives have mostly a mutton ancestry. Western 



f"!- "" "Wh 




Fig. 59. Prime Native Lambs. 

Bred and fed by the Iowa State College. 

sheep are white faced and usually show more or less wrinkles, 
particularly below the neck; native sheep are mostly brown 
faced and are usually free from wrinkles. Range methods of 
feeding and management, as compared with farm methods, 
result in further differences in appearance and make easy the 
distinction between natives and westerns. The mutton and 
breeding classes include both native and western sheep, but the 
feeder class is composed of western sheep only. Although thin 
natives are bought up in the country and successfully fed, those 
that reach the market in low condition do not sell as feeders 
because they are usually infested with internal parasites, thus 
making it difficult and often impossible to fatten them. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 217 

The stomach worm of sheep, Haemonchus contortus, is 
one of the most serious pests affecting Hve stock. Sheep of all 
ages are subject to it, but infested lambs show much more serious 
effects than do mature animals. The lambs become infested 
from the older sheep through the medium of the pasture. The 
symptoms are anemia, loss of flesh, general weakness, dullness, 
thirst, loss of appetite, and diarrhea. When the fourth stomach 
of an infested animal is opened and the contents allowed to 
settle, the parasites may be seen actively wriggling about. They 
are 3^ to 13^ inches long and about as thick as a pin. The 
worms in the stomach produce eggs which pass out in the drop- 
pings onto the pasture, and, if the season is spring or summer, 
a tiny worm, nearly one-thirtieth of an inch long, hatches out 
and crawls up a blade of grass. Uninfested sheep or lambs soon 
become infested on such pastures. No treatment has been found 
that will rid a flock of this pest, although dosing with a solution 
of copper sulphate or with gasoline* is fairly satisfactory and 
will hold stomach worms in check so that they will not injure 
the flock. The best means of combating the parasite is by 
preventative measures. Rotation of pastures is imperative. 
Permanent pastures for farm flocks are almost certain to cause 
trouble. Rape should be sown as early in the season as possible. 
It is easily grown, has a high value as feed for sheep and lambs, 
and helps prevent stomach worms, especially when temporary 
fences are used and the flock is changed to fresh ground frequently. 

The western rangeman with great areas of pasturage is 
able to keep his flocks on fresh ground, while on farms this is 



* It is advisable to treat infested sheep when they go into winter quarters 
and again in the spring after they have been on pasture for a short time, and 
at any other time during the summer when they show symptoms of attacks. 

Only clear blue crystals of copper sulphate should be used, dissolving 
1 ounce in 2 quarts of water. Care must be used in preparing the solution, 
for too strong a solution will kill the sheep and too weak a solution will not be 
effective. The sheep should be kept off feed for 18 to 24 hours before treat- 
ing. On the day they are treated they should receive no water either before 
or after treating. The size of the dose is as follows: 

For a lamb 3 months old give ^i of a fluid ounce (about 20 c. c). 

For a lamb 6 months old give 1>^ fluid ounces (about 40 c. c). 

For a yearling give 2 fluid ounces (about 60 c. c). 

For sheep 2 years old give 3 fluid ounces (about 90 c. c). 

(From Ohio Experiment Station's Monthly Bulletin, 
June, 1918, p. 174.) 

The gasoline treatment consists in giving a tablespoonful each of gasoline 
and raw linseed oil in about 6 ounces of cow's milk for a lamb, and half as 
much again for a sheep, giving three doses, one dose a day for three days, on 
an empty stomach. 



218 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

possible but, unfortunately, is not often practiced. Hence, 
western sheep have a great advantage over native sheep for 
feeding purposes. 

At the large markets and in live-stock reports, western 
sheep are frequently distinguished by the name of the state in 
which they are supposed to have been produced or fed, such as 
"Montanas," "Colorados," "Mexicans," "Idahos," etc. The 
word "fed" when prefixed to the name of a class indicates that 
the sheep were fattened on grain rather than on grass alone. 



Fig. 60. Prime Western Lambs. 

Mutton Sheep. 

All sheep and lambs sent to market, no matter what the 
condition, age, or weight, are classed as mutton sheep if they 
are suitable for immediate slaughter. They are either slaugh- 
tered at Chicago packing houses or reshipped to Philadelphia, 
New York, Baltimore, Washington, Buffalo, and other cities. 
Only the better grades are shipped. The sub-classes of mutton 
sheep are lambs, yearlings, wethers, ewes, and bucks and stags. 

Lambs. — Of the various sub-classes of mutton sheep, the 
lamb sub-class is by far the most important, both to the pro- 
ducer and to the consumer. The producer finds the market- 
ing of lambs more profitable than the marketing of older animals, 
while the consumer has developed a strong and increasing pref- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



219 



erence for lamb. Seventy-five per cent, of the ovine receipts 
at Chicago are lambs, and the percentage is increasing. Never- 
theless, mature mutton sheep will never disappear from the 
market, because surplus and spent breeding stock will always 
be available for slaughter. At from 12 to 14 months of age, 
lambs pass into the yearling or ewe sub-classes. No definite 
age limit can be drawn about the lamb sub-class, for the dis- 
tinction is based upon the degree of maturity exhibited by the 
young animal. For this reason native lambs pass out of the 
sub-class at a younger age than western lambs, because they are 
better fed and are usually free from Merino blood. The western 
lamb's slower approach to maturity, due to its breeding and 
feeding, is something of an advantage, enabling it longer to 




Fig. 61. Choice Western Lambs. 

enjoy the advantage in price that lambs have over older animals. 
A feeder may buy light western lambs in the late fall and feed 
them until the following May, at which time they will still be 
classed as lambs ; while native lambs of the same age and similarly 
managed would be classed as sheep upon their return to market. 

This makes clear why for several weeks in the year it is 
necessary to make two separate quotations on lambs, one of 
which is for those known as "spring lambs," referring to those 
born in the year the quotations are made, as distinguished from 
those born the year previous. These separate quotations first 
appear about May 20, and continue until July 1. After July 1, 
all animals born in the spring of the previous year are known 
as yearlings or ewes. The first run of spring lambs to western 
markets is from Tennessee where pastures are green very early 



220 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

in the spring and where lambing is somewhat earUer than farther 
north. The run starts about the middle of May, and continues 
regularly after June 1. These Tennessee lambs are followed 
by Kentucky lambs during July, and the central states and 
western range lambs from July 15 to November 1. Then come 
grain-fed spring lambs from about November 1 to June 1, These 
are mostly range-bred stock fed in Colorado or in the cornbelt. 
Colorado uses peas and alfalfa extensively in lamb feeding. 
In Idaho, Montana, and other western states, lambs are frequent- 
ly kept over and finished during fall and winter on hay. 

The grades of fat lambs are prime, choice, good, medium, 
and common or culls. The grade of a lamb depends upon its 
form, quality, condition, and weight. 




Fig. 62. Good Lambs. 

Prime Iambs. — Only the best lambs, or those that are 
superior in form, quality, condition, and weight, are graded as 
prime. They are used to supply the demands of the fancy city 
market, hotel, and restaurant trade. 

1. Form. — The buyer demands the form that shows the 
most development of loin, back, and leg of mutton, these being 
the regions of high-priced cuts. The lamb should be deep, 
broad, short of leg, and free from paunchiness. Fullness and 
smoothness of outline are important as indications of thickness 
and evenness in fleshing. A rough, ungainly lamb dresses out 
low and yields an unattractive carcass. Undocked lambs are 
discriminated against on the market. 

2. Quality.^The indications of quality are a medium- 
sized, clean-cut head; fine ears; fine bone; and smooth, well- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



221 



rounded outlines. These features insure fineness in texture o 
flesh, increase the dressing percentage, and add to the attrac- 
tive appearance of the carcass; hence, quahty is an important 
factor in determining price. 

3. Fatness and fleshing. — The reasons why a lamb should 
be fat are: (1) Other things being equal, a fat lamb will dress 
a higher percentage of carcass than a half-fat or thin lamb; 
(2) the fat adds to the attractiveness of the carcass, making it 
more inviting to the purchaser; (3) the fat carcass shrinks less 
in weight in cooling out in the refrigerator, and the same is true 
in cooking; (4) some external fat and fat deposited through the 
lean meat improves the juiciness and flavor of the flesh. The 
fleshing of the lamb should be deep, even, and firm, yet "springy." 




Fig. 63. Common or Cull Lambs. 



Lambs are seldom made too fat, but in the finishing of older 
animals this is easily possible. The proper degree of fatness is 
indicated by a thick dock, a mellow purse, thickness and smooth- 
ness over the back and ribs, fullness at the neck and flanks, and 
a plump, well-filled breast. 

4. Weight. — The most desirable weight for the prime 
lamb is 80 pounds. When spring lambs first appear on the 
market they weigh little more than 60 pounds, but if they have 
quality and finish they easily command top prices. During 
summer months, consumers of mutton desire small cuts, and 
this gives rise to a strong demand for lambs weighing 65 to 70 
pounds. Native lambs showing the best form, quality, and 
condition, and weighing 100 pounds occasionally sell as prime 
lambs, although this is exceptional. As a rule, weight is of less 



222 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



importance than quality or condition, but in making selections 
from the lighter carcasses the average consumer feels more fully- 
assured he is getting lamb and not mutton. 

Foreign material and moisture in the wool add to the weight. 
Should lambs be very wet, buyers may withhold bids until they 
are more nearly dry, and if bids are made on animals having 
wet fleeces, the buyer trys to allow for the extra weight in the 
price he offers. Foreign material, such as mud, sand, or manure, 
may be lodged in the fleece, and such offerings always command 
a lower price. It pays to market all sheep in clean condition. 

Choice lambs. — This grade includes most of the better lamb 
offerings upon the Chicago market. Lambs cannot be very 




Fig. 64. Prime Native Yearlings. 

Bred and fed by Iowa State College. 



deficient in form, quality, fatness, or weight, and grade as choice. 
Deficiency in quality or in weight frequently accounts for failure 
to grade as prime, but lack of condition is the most common 
cause. 

Good lambs. — Marked deficiency in form, quality, condi- 
tion, or weight, or a slight deficiency in each, puts the lamb 
into the good grade. Lack of quality and lack of condition are 
the most frequent causes of failure to grade higher than good. 

Medium lambs. — Here the form is frequently faulty, and 
the condition and quality fall far below the standard. Long, 
narrow, rough lambs much lacking in flesh grade here. They 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



223 



are often paunchy. Western lambs answering to this descrip- 
tion classify as feeders unless they are very coarse, hence this 
grade is mostly filled by native lambs. 

Common or cull Iambs. — Coarse, ill-shaped, thin lambs 
grade as common or culls. With one exception they are very 
light in weight, ranging from 30 to 50 pounds. The exception 
is found in the case of coarse, "bucky" lambs, the result of too 
late castration. The development of sex explains their coarse- 
ness and heavy weight, as they are heavier than the bulk of 
common lambs, sometimes weighing as much as 100 pounds. 
Common lambs are mostly natives. Their lack of flesh is often 
due to infestation by internal parasites. 




Fig. 65. Prime Western Yearlings. 



Many uncastrated lambs still come to market, but prin- 
cipally from the small farms — never from large farms or ranches 
where sheep raising is recognized as a business. They are dis- 
criminated against rather severely at times by buyers. Ram 
lambs are so restless that they do not acquire the finish of wether 
lambs. This is especially true after they have reached the age 
of 3 or 4 months. Tests have shown that wether lambs make 
11 per cent, more gains in weight than do ram lambs under 
similar conditions, and the difference in fatness is much more 
marked. Lambs should be docked and castrated when from 
7 to 10 days old. 



224 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



Yearlings. — This sub-class includes yearling wethers only. 
Yearling ewes are excluded. Yearlings are used as a substitute 
for lambs in the meat trade. The ability to substitute for lamb 
depends upon weight, quality, condition, and immaturity; for 
the nearer the yearling approaches the prime lamb in these 
respects, the better he fulfills his function. An index greatly 
depended upon for identifying the carcass of a young sheep, 
or lamb, is the "break-joint," which was described in Chapter 
XVI, Most yearling wethers will "break," whereas most year- 
ling ewes will not. This explains the inability of the yearling 
ewe to substitute for lamb, and hence the term "yearling" on 



- ♦««« «WW: 




Fig. 66. Good^Yearlings. 

the sheep market includes wethers only. Yearlings are commonly 
referred to as "lights" and "heavies," according to weights. 
Each year there are a number of lambs that for one or more 
reasons should not be marketed as lambs, and hence the pro- 
duction and marketing of yearlings is economically justifiable. 
The grades are prime, choice, and good. 

Prime yearlings. — To grade as prime, yearlings must be 
highly developed in form, quality, and condition, and of a light, 
handy weight, ranging from 70 to 90 pounds. Correct form 
in the prime yearling necessitates symmetry, compactness, 
roundness, and smoothness, with no suggestion of uneven lines 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 225 

or prominent parts. In quality, the requirements are fine, clean- 
cut features, fine bone, and a smooth form. Sharp discrimina- 
tion is made by buyers against those not showing a high finish, 
this being the first essential in prime yearlings. 

Choice yearlings. — Yearlings of the choice grade outnum- 
ber those grading as prime. A weight of more than 90 pounds 
is usually alone sufficient to exclude a yearling from the prime 
grade. Any noticeable departure from correct form, quality, or 
condition is sufficient to place a yearling in the choice grade. The 
difference between prime and choice yearlings is small. 

Good yearlings. — When the weight is 110 pounds or more, 
or when there is marked lack of those qualities sought in the 




Fig. 67. Common Wethers. 

yearling sub-class, the animals grade as good, this being the 
lowest grade of yearlings. Excepting those that are badly off 
in form or quality, or both, the good grade of mutton yearlings 
merges with the yearling feeder sub-class. 

Wethers. — This sub-class is composed of mature, castrated 
males. Comparatively few native wethers appear upon the 
market, this sub-class being chiefly a western product. It is 
claimed that there are fewer wethers reaching the market each 
year, and, as the demand for dressed lamb seems destined to 
increase, the proportionate number of wethers will undoubtedly 
continue to decrease, especially when transportation lines are 



226 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

further extended through the range districts. At present, the 
rangeman has a place for wethers if his location is such that the 
shipment of animals is difficult and expensive, if he has very 
cheap grazing lands and can produce his animals at very low 
cost, or if he has too few breeding sheep to run his ranch at its 
full capacity. As a mutton product, wethers are used in hotel, 
restaurant, dining car, and steamship trade, or in any place 
where the heavier cuts may be advantageously used. The grades 
of wethers are prime, choice, good, and common. 

Ewes. — Yearling ewes, ewes discarded as breeders, and 
surplus breeding ewes compose this sub-class. Wide differ- 
ences are therefore noticeable in age, condition, and weight of 
offerings. As a rule, ewes dress out lower and yield propor- 
tionately less lean meat than wethers, and hence bring a lower 
price. The higher grades of ewes are utilized for hotel and 
restaurant trade, while the lower grades supply the demand for 
cheap mutton in cities, mining camps, and other places. The 
grades of ewes are prime, choice, good, medium, and common 
or culls. 

Bucks and stags. — The supply of these is limited and hence 
they are not graded. This sub-class is of no special importance 
to the producer of mutton. 

Feeder Sheep. 

The chief distinction between mutton sheep and feeder 
sheep is the degree of fatness. Other distinctions are notice- 
able, however, for a study of the two classes discloses the fact 
that thinness of flesh is not alone sufficient to gain ready ad- 
mission to the feeder class. The animal should also be free 
from extreme coarseness, and should not be much lacking in 
vitality because of disease or old age. The supply of feeder 
sheep is greatest during September, October, and November, 
at which time rangemen are thinning their flocks in preparation 
for winter. An investigation conducted by the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture* in 1915 indicated that 64 per cent, of feeder 
sheep and lambs are purchased in the fall, 26 per cent, in the 
spring, 9 per cent, in the summer, and 1 per cent, in the winter. 
Furthermore, 47 per cent, of feeder sheep and lambs purchased 
are bought locally in the district in which they are fed or grazed, 
39 per cent, at centralized markets, and 14 per cent, in the coun- 



U. S. Dept. Agr. Report 113, p. 17. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



227 



try, other than locally. As previously explained, practically 
all sheep sold from the markets as feeders are those grown on 
western ranges. The sub-classes of feeder sheep are lambs, 
yearlings, wethers, and ewes. 

Feeder lambs. — Illinois Bulletin 129 has the following to 
say regarding feeder lambs: "Feeder lambs are those thin in 
flesh left after sorting out those in a band in suitable condition 
for the mutton trade. A great percentage of the feeder lambs 
reaching the markets fall into that class because of certain in- 
fluences under which they have been placed. It may be that 
they have had an unequal chance with those in highest con- 
dition in the band on account of not being so well nourished by 



I^SSb^"*-' 




Fig. 68. Fancy Selected Feeder Lambs. 



their dams; they may have been born too late to reach that 
degree of condition, finish, and weight demanded by the packer; 
or, they may have been held too long at the shipping place on 
the range or on the road by poor train service without the nec- 
essary amount of feed, so that the deterioration in condition 
placed what would have been mutton lambs in the feeder class." 
Feeder lambs are graded fancy selected, choice, good, medium, 
and common or inferior. 

Fancy selected feeder Iambs. — This grade includes only a 
relatively small number of lambs, because they must meet not 
only the requirements for choice feeder lambs, but must also show 
very good breeding, great uniformity in appearance and mark- 
ings, and a degree of quality that justifies no adverse criticism. 



228 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



They show slightly more fatness than the general run of feeder 
lambs, and are heavier, weighing from 65 to 70 pounds. Such 
lambs are quickly finished into prime lambs. 

Choice feeder lambs. — This grade of feeder lambs will de- 
velop into choice or prime mutton lambs, provided they are 
properly managed. The buyer looks for evidences of ability 
to make economical gains and to reach a high state of finish. 
Such evidences are manifested in the form, quality, constitution, 
condition, and weight. 

1. Form. — The form should be low set, broad, deep, com- 
pact, and free from paunchiness. Such a conformation is es- 
pecially important as an indication of quick maturity and is 
the form the butcher prizes most in a carcass. 



«a«"^ ,:t-jnr'»'- 








Fig. 69. Good Feeder Lambs. 



2. Quality. — The head should be medium sized and clean- 
cut, the bone fine, and the skin free from folds or wrinkles. 

3. Constitution and thrift. — A wide, deep chest and roomy 
middle are essential to constitutional vigor. Buyers desire a 
thrifty, active lamb and hence look with disfavor on those that 
are lame or inactive. 

4. Condition. — It is not expected that feeder lambs will 
be fat, yet they should be fairly full in their outlines, and there 
should be no suggestion of emaciation, as this means a weakened, 
inactive lamb. 

5. Weight. — Feeder lambs that grade as choice weigh 
from 55 to 62 pounds. Those below this range of weight may 
be regarded as too young or too much retarded in development 
to respond to feeding as a choice lamb should. In a normal 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



229 



feeding period of from 90 to 120 days, choice lambs are expected 
to finish into the weights most desirable on the mutton market; 
hence, the initial weight cannot be much under 55 pounds. 

Good feeder lambs. — These are often somewhat leggy and 
coarse, yet capable of making satisfactory gains. They average 
a little light in weight, and are not so high in condition as choice 
feeder lambs, hence require a longer feeding period to finish them. 
Buyers of this grade feed them all winter and shear before mar- 
keting. This grade especially appeals to buyers who take out 
lambs a few weeks before shearing time to shear and feed for a 
short period. 

Medium feeder lambs. — This grade is deficient in breeding, 
form, quality, and weight. They are long, leggy, and angular 




Fig. 70. Common Feeder Lambs. 

in form, and their wrinkled skins are evidence of much Merino 
blood. 

Common or inferior feeder lambs. — Little, light, late-born, 
weak lambs grade as common or inferior. The market calls 
them "bums," "culls," "pewees," and "peanuts." They weigh 
from 25 to 45 pounds and require five or six months feeding and 
careful management to make the feeding profitable. Extremely 
coarse lambs also grade as common. 

Yearling feeders. — This sub-class is composed only of year- 
ling wethers, and, as the mutton yearling should be able to sub- 
stitute for lamb, quality and weight are of great importance in 
grading yearling feeders. They are not a prominent feature 
in the feeder trade, as but few appear on the market. The 
grades are choice, good, and common. 



230 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Feeder wethers. — The supply is very small. The grades 
are choice, good, medium, and common. 

Feeder ewes. — Most ewes suitable for feeding bring a 
higher price when sold for breeding purposes, hence the supply 
of feeder ewes is small. They exhibit considerable variation in 
condition, quality, and thrift, and are graded choice, good, 
medium, and common. 

Breeding Sheep. 

Both native and western ewes are included in this class, 
but breeding bucks are exclusively natives. Bulletin 129 of the 
Illinois Station has the following to say concerning this class: 
"The ewes most sought after are two-, three-, and four-year-old 
dark-faced natives in ordinary field condition. Dark-faced 
ewes sell better than those that are otherwise their equals, be- 
cause their lambs, being dark faced, sell better than light-faced 
lambs on the eastern markets. Western ewes are very popular 
for breeding purposes in certain localities, as Ohio, Michigan, 
and Western New York, and many engaged in the trade think 
they should be preferred over natives, because they are more 
hardy and comparatively free from internal parasites. Many 
of the ewes offered for breeding purposes are yearlings, but 
they are not as desirable as two- or three-year-old ewes because 
they are immature and likely to be unsatisfactory at their first 
lambing. The native yearling is heavier and more nearly mature 
than the western yearling, and she meets with a correspondingly 
better sale." Breeding ewes are graded fancy selected, choice, 
good, and common. 

Fancy selected breeding ewes. — This grade of ewes is com- 
posed of the few high grades of the middle-wooled breeds, usually 
grade Shropshires, which reach the market. They must be not 
only thrifty and sound, but uniform in quality, form, fleece, 
and style. 

Choice breeding ewes. — Most of the desirable breeding 
ewes found on the market belong to the choice grade. Eligi- 
bility to this grade is based upon form, constitution, age, sound- 
ness, breeding, quality, and condition. Below, the writer again 
quotes from Illinois Bulletin 129. 

1. Form. — "The smooth, low-set, symmetrical ewe is pre- 
ferred over the angular, upstanding ewe with uneven top and 
lower lines. * * * Choice ewes, unlike fancy selected, do 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 231 

not necessarily have to be of stylish carriage. From the stand- 
point of breed type, they are often plain about the head, with 
rather long necks, and long in the coupling to the extent that 
they could hardly be regarded as compact." 

2. Constitution. — "Since the breeding ewe is to produce 
and nourish lambs, it is essential that she be deep and wide in 
the chest, and that she have a roomy middle, all of which indicates 
that she has a strong constitution and well-developed assimila- 
tive powers." 

3. Age. — "The most desirable ages are two, three, and 
four years, and more particularly two and three years. When 
breeding ewes go to the country it is the thought of the pur- 
chaser that they are to produce, on the average, three crops 
of lambs before they are sent back to the market as old mutton 
ewes, hence, if the age is any greater than four years, the ability 
to produce profitably for three years is very doubtful." 

4. Soundness. — "Soundness refers to the condition of the 
mouth and udder. A broken mouth, which means missing teeth 
or teeth worn down short, indicates advanced age, and although 
ewes may otherwise look desirable for breeding purposes, they 
cannot grade as choice if the teeth are not intact. It is necessary 
that the choice breeding ewe have a sound udder, and it is pro- 
nounced sound when it is soft and pliable to the touch, without 
abnormal development on either side. Any ewe not having a 
sound udder should be rejected as a breeder, but in the good 
and common grades some carelessness is exhibited in this respect." 

5. Breeding. — "The breeding most sought after is some 
one of the Down breeds, chiefly because of the dark color upon 
the face and legs. Early in the season of the breeding ewe trade, 
when Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia are taking large num- 
bers of breeding ewes, color has a pronounced influence upon 
the desirability of a ewe. Of two ewes, one with light markings 
and the other with dark, but equal in all other respects, the one 
with dark markings is placed a grade higher than the other. It 
is also desirable that the breeding of choice ewes be such that 
they have abundant fleeces of medium wool, which means that 
the wool be of medium fineness and length, dense, and evenly 
covering all parts of the body. Since they are to remain in the 
country for three seasons, the quality and quantity of wool 
they produce is no inconsiderable item." 

6. Quality. — "Choice breeding ewes should have smooth, 
rather refined features, and bone of medium size. Ewes of this 



232 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

grade are used to produce choice and prime lambs for the spring 
and early summer markets, and without a great deal of general 
quality, they could scarcely fulfill their mission. It is well to 
distinguish between good general quality and over-refinement, 
as delicate, over-refined ewes are without sufficient constitution 
to be profitable producers." 

7. Condition. — ^"While choice breeding ewes should be 
thrifty and active, fat is not desirable as the purchaser prefers 
to place these ewes on pasture and cheap forage feeds which will 
secure the condition desired at a lower cost than the price de- 
manded on the market. Breeding ewes are somewhat like 
feeder lambs in that they are the result of a sort where those 
ewes of desirable form, quality, breeding, age, soundness, and 
thrift, but somewhat lower than mutton condition, are selected 
out from those that are fatter and desirable for mutton." 

Good breeding ewes. — Undesirable markings, age, weight, 
form, and condition cause breeding ewes to grade as good. 

Common breeding ewes. — This grade is characterized by 
mixed breeding and advanced age. The common grade of breed- 
ing ewes merges with the feeder class. 

Breeding bucks.^ — Rams are taken out of the Chicago and 
other markets for breeding purposes, but most of them are of 
poor form and mixed breeding. Anyone who has visited the 
sheep pens at Chicago or at any other large live-stock center 
will testify that the breeder who goes to the open market to 
select sires will never succeed in raising the merit of his flock 
above the level of mediocrity. The practice is unjustifiable 
and unprofitable. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Hot-house lambs. — These are lambs produced early and 
marketed before the general run of spring lambs starts to market, 
which is about May 20. A few shipments reach the Chicago 
market, where they are called "spring lambs," but the open 
market is not the best place to dispose of such a product. The 
men who have made the most profit from the production of hot- 
house lambs are those who cater directly to the eastern hotel 
and restaurant trade. The practice is to slaughter the lambs 
on the farm where they are produced, and pack the carcasses 
in ice for shipment, small shipments being made regularly during 
the winter and early spring. They are in most demand from 
Christmas until Easter. They must be fat and weigh between 
40 and 55 pounds. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 233 

Throw outs. — When bands of lambs reach Chicago, they 
are at once sorted into the mutton and feeder classes. The 
buyer of the feeders usually has the privilege of rejecting those 
not suitable for feeding purposes. The rejections, called "throw 
outs," are made up of lambs that are lame, unthrifty, blind, un- 
castrated, undocked, over weight, under weight, badly wrinkled, 
sore mouthed, burry, black, low backed, or open fleeced. They 
are purchased by small city butchers who have a cheap trade. 
They sell at cull-lamb or medium-lamb prices. 

Dead sheep. — Sheep which die in transit are valued chiefly 
for their wool. If mangled and badly trampled, they are worth- 
less, and fifty per cent, of dead sheep reach the market in this 
condition. 

Goats.— These are sold for slaughter if they are in good 
condition, but do not bring as high price as sheep. The supply 
is limited. Thin goats are often taken to the country to clean 
up brush land. 

Sheep Prices at Chicago. 

Chicago prices during 1918. — The lowest and highest prices 
paid in Chicago* on the open market for the various classes of 
sheep in 1918 were as follows: Native mutton lambs, $8.00 — 
$21.50; western mutton lambs, $8.00 — $21.50; spring lambs, 
$6.00^$22.00; mutton yearlings (natives and westerns), $8.50 — 
$20.00; native mutton sheep, $2.50 — $17.50; western mutton 
sheep, $3.00— $17.00; feeder lambs, $10.50— $21.75; feeder sheep 
and yearlings, $4.50— $16.00; breeding ewes, $8.00— $19.00. 
In each instance the highest price listed above represents a new 
high record on the Chicago market, except breeding ewes which 
established a record of $20.00 at Chicago in 1917. 

Market values of the various classes. — The comparative 
market values of the sub-classes of mutton sheep are shown 
by the following table, giving the yearly average prices at Chicago 
for the several sub-classes from 1909 to 1918, and also the aver- 
ages for the entire ten-year period : 



* Year Book of Figures, 1919. 



234 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 





Lambs 


Year- 
lings 


Sheep 


All 
lambs 


All 


Year 


Natives 


Westerns 


Natives 


Westerns 


sheep 


1909 


$7.30 


$7.50 


$6.00 


$4.95 


$5.00 


$7.40 


$5.00 


1910 


7.40 


7.65 


6.30 


5.10 


5.35 


7.55 


5.25 


1911 


5,70 


6.05 


4.50 


3.80 


4.05 


5.95 


3.95 


1912 


6.90 


7.35 


5.65 


4.40 


4.75 


7.20 


4.60 


1913 


7.50 


7.85 


6.35 


5.00 


5.30 


7.70 


5.20 


1914 


7.75 


8.15 


6.55 


5.35 


5.70 


8.00 


5.55 


1915 , 


8.85 


9.15 


7.45 


6.10 


6,45 


9.00 


6.30 


1916 


10.35 


10.90 


9.25 


7.70 


7.95 


10,75 


7.85 


1917 


15.35 


15.80 


13.00 


10.90 


11.15 


15,60 


11.00 


1918 


16.25 


16.85 


13.75 


11.75 


12.35 


16.60 


12.15 


10-year 
















average 


$9.35 


$9.75 


$7.90 


$6.50 


$6.80 


$9.60 


$6.70 



The above table shows that western lambs outsell native 
lambs by 40 cents per cwt., and western sheep outsell native 
sheep by 30 cents per cwt. All lambs together have averaged 
$2.90 more per cwt. than all sheep during the ten years from 
1909 to 1918 inclusive. Lambs sell $1.70 higher than yearlings, 
and yearlings outsell sheep by $1.20. The inability of thin 
natives to sell for feeding purposes largely explains the differ- 
ence in prices between native sheep and western sheep in the 
mutton class. 

As a rule, the lowest prices for sheep and lambs are paid 
the first week in November, and the highest prices are paid the 
last week in March. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
BREEDING FOR THE MARKET. 

In colonial times, sheep were all of the coarse-wooled type^ 
brought with the settlers from England and Holland. They 
were the unimproved original stock from which the present 
English breeds have sprung. Later, George Washington and 
other leading agriculturists of the time, introduced sheep repre- 
senting the early breeding improvement in Europe. After the 
organization of the national government the Merinos made 
their appearance. In 1860, the Merino was the outstanding 
feature among American sheep. In 1870, more than four-fifths 
of American sheep were Merinos or their grades. There were a 
few middle-wooled sheep and a very few flocks of the long-wooled 
breeds in the middle states and in the Ohio valley. The old 
coarse wools were scattered through the South. Kentucky had 
the largest number of long wools. Importations were made 
from England and Canada. In Texas and New Mexico were 
Mexican sheep of Spanish origin that had degenerated and 
almost reverted to the wild state. Their fleeces were coarse 
and hairy and weighed only one or two pounds. 

When the first exports of beef were made to England, about 
1875, the "Scotsman," a Scottish newspaper, sent Mr. James 
Macdonald to America to investigate the American live-stock 
industry and render a complete report. The results of this 
investigation were published by Mr. Macdonald in 1878 in a 
book entitled, "Food from the Far West." His remarks upon 
the state of the sheep industry in the United States at that time 
were as follows: 

"No one in political or agricultural circles, or elsewhere, 
seems so confident of the export of mutton becoming or con- 
tinuing so extensive or so profitable as that of beef. Mutton 
is not considered an important article of food- in America, and 
the feeding of sheep has received but very little attention from 
its farmers. Sheep-farming is certainly carried on very ex- 
tensively all over America, especially in the Western States of 
the Union and on the Pacific slopes; but, with a few exceptions 
in the older and Eastern States, the sheep-farmer's whole harvest 
is his "clip" of wool. There is no demand for mutton, and there- 

235 



236 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

fore he prepares none. He keeps a class of sheep specially 
adapted for producing wool, and allows his old sheep to die away 
naturally, or go where they may — that is, if he cannot dispose 
of them, even for a mere trifle, before they reach the ripe old 
age of eight or nine years." 

Sheep grew in number from 19,000,000 in 1840 to 22,500,000 
in 1860, to 35,000,000 in 1880, to 36,000,000 in 1890, to 61,500,000 
in 1900, and to 63,000,000 in 1910. The number in 1919 was 
49,863,000 The loss since 1910 is 13,137,000 in nine years. 

There has been a steady increase since 1860 in the pro- 
portionate number of mutton sheep. This has been mostly 
due to the increased demand for meat, and partly to the demand 
for wools other than the Merino, that is, the combing wools. 
The flocks of mutton sheep increased in all parts of the country, 
though Merino improvement was still the predominating fea- 
ture in sheep husbandry in Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, Michigan, and elsewhere, and the great flocks of the 
ranges became Merino grades of a high order of merit. In 
recent years many Merino flocks in the eastern part of the 
country have been made over into mutton flocks by several 
succeeding crosses of mutton blood, while on the western ranges 
increasing numbers of mutton rams have been used for crossing 
on range flocks to produce a more practical wool-and -mutton 
type. East of the Missouri River the majority of sheep are of 
the mutton type, while on western ranges Merino blood pre- 
dominates. 

The sheep census. — The U. S. Department of Agriculture 
estimated that on January 1, 1919, there were 49,863,000 sheep 
and lambs in the United States, and that their average value 
per head was $11.61. The leading states in numbers of sheep 
were as follows: 

1. Wyoming 4,018,000 6. California 2,943,000 

2. Idaho 3,234,000 7. Oregon 2,497,000 

3. New Mexico 3,135,000 8. Utah 2,410,000 

4. Montana 2,984,000 9. Colorado 2,303,000 

5. Ohio 2,980,000 10. Texas 2,232,000 

The distribution by geographical divisions was as follows: 

North Atlantic 2,216,000 

South Atlantic 2,179,000 

North Central, East of Mississippi River 7,941,000 

North Central, West of Mississippi River 5,405,000 

South Central 4,898,000 

Far Western 27,224,000 



Total United States 49,863,000 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 237 

The foregoing figures show that the far western division, 
which includes the range states, has more sheep than all other 
divisions combined. 

In the United States* the sheep slaughter, including lambs, 
was 44.9 per cent, of the stock of ewes in 1900, and 46.1 per cent. 
in 1910. The census of 1900 indicated that the average amount 
of mutton and lamb produced during the year was 18 pounds 
per head of stock ewes. The figure for 1910 was 19 pounds. 
Sheep have a lower ratio than cattle or swine. The reason for 
this is found in the low meat productivity of sheep kept for 
wool. 

Source of improvement. — A certain few men have col- 
lected the very choicest purebred and registered mutton sheep 
that may be had, almost regardless of price, and have estab- 
lished magnificent flocks upon which they have used rams that 
were selected with great care and at considerable expense. The 
owner of such a flock makes it his business to supply breeding 
rams and some breeding ewes to breeders of less prominence 
than himself. Year after year he slowly improves his flock 
by careful selection and mating, and he is thus enabled to send 
out better rams each year to head the flocks of less prominent 
breeders. In turn, these less prominent flocks supply better 
breeding animals to more numerous and still less noted breeders, 
and so the scheme works out, improvement slowly, but surely, 
flowing downward and outward from a few flocks to the many. 
There is a third class of breeders who are producing directly for 
the market. The produce of their flocks is sold to feeders, or 
else they themselves feed out the lambs for market. We may, 
therefore, classify all flocks of sheep as follows : 

1. A few flocks solely for improvement. 

2. Numerous flocks primarily for propagation and sec- 
ondarily for improvement. 

3. Many flocks solely for mutton production. 

The breeders of the third class secure their rams from the 
second-class flocks, and their ewes are generally grades. 

The mutton breeding ram. — The selection of the breeding 
ram should be most carefully made as he affords the chief op- 
portunity for improvement in the flock. For this reason it is 
wise to invest several times the average value of the ewes in the 
purchase of a ram to mate with them. However, it is not so 



U. S. Dept. Agr. Report 109, p. 124. 



238 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



much a matter of securing a ram at such or such a price as it is 
of selecting a sire of m_erit that is strong in the points wherein 
the ewe flock is weak, and whose offspring will possess a higher 
standard of merit than the ewes from which they came. It is 
a breeding-up process, and this fact justifies more careful selec- 
tion and greater expenditure of money in each succeeding pur- 
chase of a ram. It is always a matter of locating the sort of 
ram desired, and the price demanded for him should not stand 
in the way of a purchase unless it is really exorbitant. 

The breeding ram of mutton type must be, first of all, a 
good mutton animal, including as high development of the form. 













.i.- *-.--. 'u2ir^<&&y^ikj.> . 



M^ 



Fig. 71. Correct Type in the Mutton Breeding Ram. 



Southdown ram, Babraham Bumper, Champion at the English Royal 
Show in 1909. Bred and shown by Mr. C. Adeane, Babraham Hall, Cam- 
bridge, England. Note the masculine head and neck, blocky body, heavy 
leg of mutton, and good bone of this ram. 



quality, and fleshing as may be secured. He must, in addition, 
have a strong, robust constitution as evidenced by a wide, deep 
chest and middle and good feeding qualities. The story is told 
of an English shepherd who visited a certain flock to purchase 
a yearling ram. After much deliberation, he found himself 
unable to decide among several of the offerings, all of which 
suited him. Suddenly his serious expression changed to one of 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 239 

renewed interest, and turning to the owner he said, "Feed 'em." 
Grain was placed in a trough in full view of the rams, at sight of 
which one pricked up his ears and marched quickly to the trough, 
the others following more leisurely. "That's him," said the 
buyer, pointing to the ram in front, for in common with all 
experienced feeders he recognized the significance of good feed- 
ing qualities. A strong appetite is evidence of constitution, 
thrift, lustiness, and health, and indicates a disposition to de- 
velop quickly and make economical gains. 

The ram should exhibit strong sexual characteristics, these 
being a strong head with distinctly masculine features and 
expression, a well-developed crest or scrag similar to the crest 
of the beef bull, a sufficiency of bone, and general ruggedness 
of build throughout. Style in the ram, including an active gait 
and bold presence, is an evidence of masculinity and breeding 
usefulness. Particular attention should be given to the shape, 
position, and strength of feet, pasterns, and legs. These points 
should receive attention in any sheep, but in the breeding ram 
their importance is magnified. The feet should be well formed, 
the pasterns strong, the bone ample, and the legs straight. Weak- 
ness in the hind legs is of more consequence than weakness in 
front, as it injures the breeding usefulness to a greater degree. 
The hocks should not be bent so as to give the hind leg a sickled 
appearance as viewed from the side; and when viewed from the 
rear, the hind legs should not be bowed outward, but placed 
straight and square beneath the quarters. Weak or broken 
down hind pasterns are particularly objectionable in a breeding 
ram. 

The ram's fleece should be heavy and of good quality ac- 
cording to his breed, special attention being given to the wool 
in case the ewe flock averages below desired standards for fleece. 

So far as the fatness of the ram is concerned, greater satis- 
faction will ordinarily result from the purchase of a ram in 
medium condition, or what shepherds call a field ram, than one 
that has been much pampered in preparation for sale or show. 
The latter may present a more attractive form and appearance 
at the time of purchase, but must be let down in flesh before 
he can be used for breeding purposes, and it is often true that 
with loss of fat there are revealed some rather disappointing points 
in form. This more often happens when the buyer is a novice 
and the ram has had the additional advantage of the correcting 
power of shears in expert hands. In any case, the purchase 



240 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

price of a fitted ram must include the cost of fitting, which may 
be a considerable amount. It is, of course, a fact that the very 
choicest rams are highly fitted before being offered for sale, as 
no flock owner expects to realize full value for an exceptional 
ram unless he is presented in finished and fitted form; however, 
this applies to the best offerings and is somewhat outside of the 
matter under consideration. When rams are purchased to head 
ordinary flocks the produce of which are sent to market, it will 
usually be best to pay up to the limit of price for a field ram that 
suits, rather than invest the same amount in a fitted sheep. 

Only purebred sires should be used on any flock, and the 
same breed should be patronized each time a ram is purchased; 
in other words, breeding for the market should not result in a 
mixture of breeds, but the owner should breed in line, grading 
up his flock by consecutive crosses of the same breed. Thus will 
the good features of that breed be so strongly stamped upon the 
flock as to give it a high average of individual merit and great 
uniformity. 

In farm flocks one ram may be used for every 35 to 50 
ewes. On the range it is customary to use one ram for every 
35 to 40 ewes. A ram lamb should not be used for heavy serv- 
ice. The period of gestation for ewes is somewhat variable, 
but is usually 146 days. Although ewe lambs are sometimes 
bred in the fall so that they will lamb the next spring at a little 
over a year old, the usual plan is to allow the ewe lambs to grow 
and develop into their yearling form, breeding them in the fall 
to drop their first lambs the following spring at two years old. 
The breeding of ewe lambs is not ordinarily considered good 
practice. 

The mutton breeding ewe. — Assuming that there is an 
established ewe flock to which additions are made from the 
best ewe lambs of each year, the problem of the breeder is to 
weed out the less desirable ewes and send them to the butcher. 
Herein lies a second advantage from the use of good males, 
for if the sire proves a successful breeder, the owner is furnished 
with excellent material with which to replenish his ewe flock, 
thus permitting closer culling of the aged ewes than would be 
possible had an inferior ram been used. Hence, the use of a 
good ram not only results in direct improvement in the first 
crop of lambs, but there is the added advantage of the indirect 
improvement which is realized when the best ewe lambs reach 
breeding age. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



241 



It is easiest to cull the flock a short time after shearing, 
allowing a few days to elapse in order that the ewes may recover 
from the shabby appearance and somewhat disorganized state 
common to many of them immediately after being shorn. Aged 
ewes and broken-mouthed ewes should have been weeded out the 
previous fall, the cost of wintering them being a needless expense 
inasmuch as they are difficult to winter without becoming very 
low in flesh. The wintered ewes may then be sorted two or three 
weeks after shearing; faulty forms and lack of size are easily de- 
tected at that time. It is an easy matter to part with ewes that 



yT^^Y**^ 




:ti-^^iJfejs^^:^^siiEfflB.'.'o -fS^mt-' 



Fig. 72. Correct Type in the Breeding Ewe. 

Champion Hampshire ewe at the 1913 International, owned by Mr. A. W. 
Arnold, Galesville, Wis. This ewe has strength and vigor, combined with 
femininity and quality. Her dark points are an asset, and her roomy middle 
and dense fleece are valuable attributes in the breeding ewe. 



are aged, broken in mouth, ruptured, crippled, or defective in 
udder, but it sometimes requires strong determination to give up 
ewes that are sound, but nevertheless unworthy because of faults 
in form, quality, size, or fleece. This is especially true when close 
culling will not leave as large a flock as it is desired to carry, but 
in the long run it will be best to err on the side of too close 



242 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



culling rather than to carry certain individuals that do not 
measure up to desired standards. Close scrutiny should be made 
of heads, necks, breasts, shoulders, backs, ribs, rumps, quarters, 
and legs. Form, size, quality, constitution, muscling, and 
smoothness of outline should receive much consideration, the 
requirements for which have been set forth in preceding chap- 
ters. One word more, however, may well be added on heads 
and necks. The following by Prof. John Wrightson,* of the 
Royal College of Science, London, England, is much to the point: 

"Nothing looks better than good heads, and, strange as it 
may seem, a sheep's head, which is only worth 9d. at the butcher's 
is worth a lot of money when carried on a good ram or ewe. A 
muscular neck indicates strength of constitution and good mus- 




Fig. 73. A Prize- Winning Flock. 

Champion Shropshire flock at the 1913 International, owned by A. 
Broughton & Sons, Albany, Wis. 

cular development, and I have never known a sheep breeder 
who did not strongly object to a shabby neck. Mr. Ellman, 
the father of the Southdown breed, insisted on the importance 
of this point. Mr. James Rawlence, of Bulbridge, one of the 
oldest of our noted breeders, would not keep a weak-necked 
ewe, and no man who values his flock would buy a ram with 
this fault. The neck ought to be muscular, arched, tapering, 
and neat." 

Uniformity in shape, size, color markings, and general ap- 
pearance is a valuable attribute in any flock. When the pro- 
duce is intended for the open market, this insures a uniform lot 



Sheep, Breeds and Management, p. 126. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



243 



of lambs for feeding, and it adds much to the attractiveness of 
the finished lot when presented to the buyer. The market's 
preference for dark color markings may well be kept in mind 
in this connection. 

The breeder who aims to supply the open market must 
emphasize the matter of wool when building up a breeding flock. 
Although meat production is the principal object in view, the 
clip of wool from such a flock ought to be an important source 
of revenue. Furthermore, the ewe with the heavy fleece is 
better protected from the weather, remains more healthy for 
that reason, and the density of her fleece keeps it free from dirt, 




: •#^. "^jMMI^^^W^JIl^^^^^^JlKdlJH 






Fig. 74. A Flock of Uniform Type. 

sand, manure, bits of straw, and other foreign matter. Moisture 
is. better excluded and the yolk thus becomes abundant, protect- 
ing the fibers and preventing a cotted fleece. Her offspring, 
being heavily wooled, is less subject to chills and colds which 
hinder rapid growth and development. And lastly, the heavy 
fleece finds an appreciation on the live-stock market. All along 
the line, therefore, from breeding flock to packing house, the 
fleece with density, length of staple, and quality meets with 
approval and increases the value of the animal it covers. 

It is evident that it takes years to build up a flock of much 
uniform merit and value. It is not a difficult matter to stock 



244 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

a farm with sheep, but whether or not the undertaking will be 
successful depends very largely upon the wisdom displayed in 
the culling of ewes, selection of rams, and general management 
of the flock. In no other kind of live stock does the individuality 
of the man in charge display itself so strongly as with sheep. 
Sheep respond quickly to good care, and deteriorate rapidly 
when neglected. 

Although some essential points in flock management have 
necessarily been touched upon in discussing the elements that 
constitute a good breeding ram and breeding ewe, nevertheless 
a detailed discussion of sheep management cannot be presented 
here, as it would require a great deal of space and is outside the 
range of the general subject in hand. However, such important 
subjects as winter management and feeding of ewes, feeding as 
a factor in getting ewes in lamb, dipping, management at lamb- 
ing time, feeding and management of ewes and lambs, docking 
and castrating, the feeding of lambs, shearing, control of internal 
parasites, the sheep-killing dog; crops to grow for sheep — these 
and many other subjects relating to sheep feeding and manage- 
ment should be carefully studied by anyone who contemplates 
entering the sheep business. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
THE MERINO OR FINE-WOOL TYPE. 

All sheep are wool bearing, but the Merino excels in weight 
and fineness of fleece. The Merino is the foundation of American 
sheep husbandry. It is the most important sheep in America 
today, though less so than formerly. By far the greater num- 
ber of grade flocks, especially in one section centering in Ohio, 
and another comprising the territory west of the Missouri River, 
are of fine- wool origin. Of the 50,000,000 sheep in the United 
States, over 27,000,000 are in the Western Division, and these 
are largely of Merino breeding. Many western sheep are 
brought into the cornbelt for fattening. 

The Merino is native to Spain, and from the Spanish Merino 
have come all present breeds of Merino sheep. This stock 
existed in Spain prior to the Christian era, but in all its history 
in Spain there is practically no record of attempts at improve- 
ment. In the eighteenth century, Spanish Merinos were taken 
to Saxony, France, United States, South Africa, Australia, and 
other countries in which distinct types and breeds have been 
developed by selection from the old Spanish stock. Over 20,000 
Merino sheep were imported into the United States prior to 
1811, and these formed the foundation of the breed known as 
the American Merino. Beginning in 1840, importations of the 
French Merino or Rambouillet were made to America, and this 
breed is now bred extensively to supply rams for western flocks. 

The American Merino is the outcome of efforts to develop 
a sheep with a fleece of the greatest possible value. Some 
breeders carried their efforts so far as to ignore the meat-produc- 
ing qualities of the animals they bred, centering practically all 
their attention on the fleece. At best, the improvement of any 
kind of live stock is a difficult and slow undertaking. When 
improvement is sought in one or a few respects, the desired 
results are secured more readily and in greater perfection than 
when an attempt is made to improve the animal in a rather 
large number of ways. It is still more difficult to improve a 
breed of live stock along two or more opposing or antagonistic 
lines, such as beef and milk, mutton and wool, strength and speed, 
or size and quality. It was for this reason that many breeders 

245 



246 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



of Merino sheep in America willingly sacrificed the meat -producing 
qualities of their flocks in order that the production of wool might 
be made as large as possible. These breeders developed what was 
formerly known as the Vermont Merino, a type that contrasts with 
mutton type as strongly as dairy cattle contrast with beef cattle. 
Other breeders of fine-wooled sheep did not entirely ignore 
the mutton qualities of their animals, but placed some emphasis 
upon a good conformation and a reasonable degree of fleshing; 
at the same time they gave most attention to the weight and 
quality of fleece. Efforts of this kind in America resulted in 




Fig. 75. Class A Merino Ram. 

the creation of what is known as the Delaine type of the Amer- 
ican Merino; in France similar efforts resulted in the breed 
known as the French Merino or Rambouillet. Thus a type 
was established having better mutton qualities, a smoother skin, 
a fleece of greater length and uniformity, and a type that is shorn 
much more easily because of its freedom from wrinkles. Broadly 
speaking, however, the differences mentioned in the ideals of 
breeders of fine-wooled sheep have not resulted in enough varia- 
tion in type to prevent a satisfactory study of fine-wooled sheep 
as a single group or type. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 247 

The general appearance of the fine-wooled sheep is very 
distinctive. In a general way, the conformation closely re- 
sembles that of the dairy cow. There is the same narrowness 
of forequarters and moderate width of back and body, the 
same muscular rather than fleshy covering, and the same ten- 
dency to be somewhat rangy of body and long of leg. As com- 
pared with the mutton type, there is proportionately more 
length and narrowness of head, more length and thinness of 
neck, less arch of rib, and less development of thigh and twist. 
These differences are marked, so that shorn of their fleeces, 
the two types of sheep present striking differences in form. 
When viewed in the wool, further variations are manifest. The 
fleece of the fine-wooled sheep is more compact and is often very 
dark in color, the latter being due to the very heavy secretion of 
yolk which catches dust and dirt and produces a black gum on 
the exterior of the fleece. The mutton-type sheep has a smooth 
skin, but the fine-wooled type has a loose skin lying more or less 
in folds or wrinkles. Sometimes there are only a few folds about 
the breast and lower border of the neck, while the middle and 
hindquarters are smooth; but a large class of fine-wooled sheep 
present a very wrinkled appearance over the entire body. 

The head, should be rather short, medium wide, and well 
defined or clean-cut in its features. The muzzle should be 
broad and the nostrils should be large. Rams should have a 
Roman nose with more width than ewes. The eyes of both 
sexes should be rather wide apart, large, and clear, and have 
a quiet expression. The forehead should be somewhat prom- 
inent and have a fair degree of width. The ears should be fine, 
short, covered with silky hair, and actively carried. The horns 
of the ram should be placed rather well apart so as to give width 
and strength to the top of the head. At maturity the horns 
attain a strong development. They have a corkscrew shape, 
turning backward from the base, then downward, around for- 
ward, and up, making about one and one-half turns. The ewes 
are hornless. Wool covers the poll, forehead, upper part of 
the face, and cheeks, while the ears and lower part of the face 
are covered with white hair, which should be very soft and fine. 
The skin about the nose is often wrinkled. The head of the 
ram should be very masculine as shown by heavy horns, wide 
poll, Roman profile, and heavy nose, all parts being well de- 
veloped or massive and the expression resolute. The ewe 
should have a refined head and a feminine expression. 



248 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The neck should be moderately short and rather muscular. 
The neck and shoulders do not blend smoothly as in the mutton 
type, although extreme angularity or roughness is undesirable. 
Males should show a heavily muscled neck; a pronounced crest 
or scrag just behind the poll indicates a strongly sexed animal. 

The shoulders should be well laid in, and should be mus- 
cular. The depth of fleshing is not great enough to give that 
smoothness of form which characterizes a good mutton-type 
animal. The tops of the shoulders are o^ten sharp and high, 
especially in those individuals showing the more extreme devel- 




Fig. 76. Class B Merino Ram. 

opment of the type; but a neat, rather rounded conformation 
with a fair degree of smoothness is more to be desired, especially 
in rams. 

The breast should be deep and have moderate width. The 
absence of heavy fleshing makes impossible the development 
of any marked degree of plumpness or width, yet a very nar- 
row or peaked breast indicates a cramped chest cavity and 
lack of strong constitution. 

The chest gets its capacity from depth more than from 
width. Extreme narrowness is a serious fault; the fore-rib 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 249 

should arch sufficiently and carry down far enough to provide 
a roomy chest. The fore flank should be reasonably well filled 
out. Every type of animal needs a robust constitution, one 
of the best evidences of which is a large heart-girth, proper 
allowance being made, when judging, for the thickness of fleshing 
which covers the forequarters. 

The front legs are often very crooked at the knees, too 
close together, and too long. They should be reasonably straight, 
moderately wide apart, and fairly short. The feet are often 
poorly formed and rather weak, whereas they should be well 
developed and strong. The shanks should be reasonably fine 
and rather short, and the pasterns should be free from weakness. 

The back and loin vary somewhat according to the ideals 
of breeders. In the very wrinkly Merinos in which the mutton 
qualities are ignored, the top is noticeably long and narrow, 
and this may be carried to an undesirable extreme. In the 
Delaine Merino and Rambouillet, the back is proportionately 
shorter and wider. In any case the top should be straight from 
shoulders to hips, showing a fair degree of width of back and a 
rather wide, strongly muscled loin. 

The ribs should be fairly well arched and should show 
good length in order to provide proper feeding, breeding, and 
chest capacity. The middle is not very compact, but is mod- 
erately long. 

The hips are somewhat prominent on account of their 
width and lack of deep fleshing throughout, but ragged hips are 
undesirable. Much smoothness cannot be expected in a Merino, 
yet a rather neat, tidy conformation is demanded. 

The rump is often peaked and drooping, but the best form 
embodies a rump that is long, level, and medium wide. 

The thighs and twist vary with respect to the class of fine- 
wooled sheep under consideration. Generally speaking, the 
thigh should be medium thick, and the muscling between the 
legs should be sufficient to afford at least a moderate development 
of the twist. 

The hind legs should be straight, medium long, reasonably 
fine, strong in the pastern, and placed somewhat apart. A 
large percentage of Merino sheep have crooked hind legs, the 
hocks being close together and the feet too wide apart, or the 
hocks much bent so as to place the hind feet too far under the 
body, instead of carrying straight downward from hock to ground. 
The feet should be well formed and strong. 



250 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The skin should have a bright pink color, indicating health. 
Fine-wooled sheep usually show an excellent color of skin super- 
ior to the mutton type. As already mentioned, the skin is more 
or less folded or wrinkled. The Merino has not only a thinner 
skin than the mutton breeds, but is more richly furnished with 
oil glands and secretes a great deal more yolk. Fineness of 
skin and fineness of wool are correlated characters. 

The quality of fine-wooled sheep is evidenced by fineness 
of fleece, fineness of bone, fineness of hair on face and ears, and 
by a medium-sized, clean-cut head with fine ears. 

The style of the fine-wooled type is usually rather marked. 
Merinos have good carriage of head and ear and are quick and 
active in their movements, walking rapidly and covering ground 
with more ease and speed than the mutton-type sheep. Their 
greater activity partly explains their popularity on western 
ranges where Merino blood forms the basis of most flocks. 

The fleece of the Merino has a very high degree of fineness, 
varying, however, in different flocks and in different individ- 
uals. The skin has many more fibers to the square inch than 
any of the mutton breeds; in other words, the fleece is ordinarily 
very compact and dense. Density and fineness are outstanding 
features in a good fine-wooled fleece, the crimp being very fine 
and regular from skin to tip of fiber. The very finest woolen 
fabrics are made from this wool. A third striking feature of 
the Merino fleece as compared with mutton sheep is the large 
amount of ofl or yolk it contains. This gives a generous coating 
to each fiber so as to preserve its soundness and pliancy. Merino 
wool commonly undergoes a shrinkage of 65 per cent, in scour- 
ing, and this figure is not infrequently exceeded. When the 
secretion of yolk is very excessive, the fleece is made subject to 
criticism and the wool buyer makes allowance for the extra 
weight in the price he offers. 

The wool should cover the head in the fashion already 
described, only the nose and ears being bare. The fleece should 
cover all of the body and extend down the legs to the feet. The 
belly and under parts vary a great deal in the covering of wool. 
It is important that the belly be well wooled, and that the natural 
bareness occurring at the armpits be as limited in area as possible. 
The scrotum of the ram should be covered with wool. The 
wool on the under parts of the animal should be as nearly like 
the rest of the fleece in density and length as possible. A good 
Merino flock should average 11 to 15 pounds of unwashed wool. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



251 



Classification of fine-wooled sheep. — Breeders of fine- 
wooled sheep and the managers of the larger sheep shows group 
or classify American Merinos into three classes or sub-types, 
known respectively as A, B, and C. As already pointed out, 
breeders of Merinos have differed in their ideals for a number 
of years, and this has resulted in three fairly well-defined classes. 
The classification is based chiefly on the character of the fleece, 
the number and position of the folds or wrinkles, the size and 
weight of the animal, and the development of mutton qualities. 




Fig. 77. Class C Merino Ram. 



Class A. — These are the smallest and most wrinkly of the 
three classes, and have the finest, densest, and heaviest fleeces, 
the shortest wool, the most yolk, the poorest mutton qualities, 
and the poorest form. Rams weigh about 140 pounds, fleece 
off; and ewes about 100 pounds. There are heavy folds all over 
the sheep, except over the back. A good ram should shear 
close to 30 pounds, and a ewe about 20 pounds. These weights 
for fleeces represent high standards. The length of fiber is from 
13^ to 23^ inches. The wool shrinks about 70 per cent, on the 
average when scoured. The form of the A Merino is most 
narrow, rangy, leggy, and irregular in lines of the three classes. 



252 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



and mutton qualities are practically wanting. It is entirely a 
wool proposition, with weight of fleece esteemed above every- 
thing else. The wrinkly skin results in considerable variation 
between the wool on top of the wrinkles and that between. 
The wool on the tops of the wrinkles, being opened out and 
more exposed, is much less oily, considerably coarser, and slightly 
shorter. 

Class B. — This class is wrinkled on the neck, breast, flanks, 
and about the dock. It has better mutton qualities and better 




Fig. 78. Class B Merino Ewe. 

form than A. Rams weigh 150 to 175 pounds; ewes, 100 to 
115 pounds, fleece off. Strictly good rams of this class should 
shear 25 pounds, and ewes 15 pounds. The fiber measures from 
23^ to 3 inches, and the wool shrinks about 65 per cent. It 
sells from 2 to 3 cents higher per pound than the wool of A. 

Class C. — This is also called the Delaine class. These 
sheep are free from folds, unless to a slight extent on the neck 
and breast. The head, legs, and body are not so well wooled 
as A and B. It is the largest of the three classes, has the best 
form, being more blocky and low set, and has the best mutton 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



253 



qualities. It is a creditable meat producer, but not equal to 
the mutton breeds. The ram should weigh about 175 pounds, 
and the ewe about 125 pounds, fleece off. Rams should shear 
18 pounds, ewes 11 pounds. The fleece has less crimp and 
fineness and less density than the fleece of A or B, but is longer, 
measuring from 3 to 4 inches. The wool shrinks about 60 per 
cent., and sells from 2 to 3 cents higher per pound than B. 

The Rambouillet breed, developed in France, excels all 
other Merinos in size, constitution, and mutton qualities. The 




Fig. 79. Rambouillet Ewe. 

ram should weigh 185 pounds or over, and the ewe 155 pounds 
or over. Some of them are very large, rams weighing up to 
300 pounds and over, and ewes up to 250 pounds. They have 
strong frames, heavier bone than the American Merinos, con- 
siderable length of leg, and the top line is usually straighter 
than the American Merino, The head has a bold appearance, 
is carried higher, and has a more complete covering of wool. 
The Rambouillet has a smooth body with only a few large folds 
over the breast, and possibly a few light folds at the flanks and 



254 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

dock. Rams should shear from 15 to 20 pounds, and ewes 
10 to 12 pounds. These figures are surpassed by the very best 
of the breed. The weight of. fleece averages less than that of 
the American Merino, mainly because of less oil or yolk. The 
length of fiber should be from 23^ to 3 inches, although much 
of it falls short of this length. The wool has great fineness, but 
not quite equal to that of the American Merino. 



CHAPTER XX. 

WOOLS AND WOOL GROWING. 

No animal has a covering entirely of wool; even sheep 
have hair upon the face and lower parts of the legs. Wool 
served as a necessary protection to sheep in the wild state, the 
original home having been in the higher parts of mountainous 
regions. Wool ranks next to cotton as a source of textile fab- 
rics, the temperate regions universally using woolen products. 
The per capita consumption of wool has increased very greatly. 
It was about 3 pounds in early times in the United States when 
all spinning and weaving was done in the home; in 1850 it was 
4 pounds; it is now about 6}^ pounds. No other people use as 
much wool as do Americans, nor as much cotton. The world's 
clip of wool averages about 2 pounds for each person. 




Fig. 80. Wool Fiber Highly Magnified. 

This drawing shows the scaly surface of the wool fiber; the tips of the 
overlapping scales project outward and point toward the tip of the fiber. 

As a rule, sheep are shorn only once a year. The coming 
of mild weather in the spring marks the time of shearing. Both 
hand and machine shearing are practiced, preferably the latter. 
As the wool is sheared off it is usually kept in one piece so far 
as possible, and as soon as the fleece is removed it is spread out, 
with the flesh or cut side down, any loose pieces are thrown into 
the center, and the fleece is then rolled up with the flesh side 
out and is tied with twine. Prior to shipment the fleeces are 
packed in large sacks, in which condition they arrive at the various 
wool markets of the country. 

Growth and structure. — Wool is modified hair. The term 
hair is ordinarily used to designate a smooth, straight fiber or 
filament like horse hair. Wool differs from hair in being more 
or less crimped and in having a much more serrated or ridged 
surface. The surface of the fiber is composed of a single layer 

255 



256 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



of irregular, overlapping scales, apparent only under the micro- 
scope, forming the wool cuticle, there being from 1200 to 3000 
exposed points of these scales to an inch. The scales open or 
point toward the tip of the fiber, like shingles put on the wrong 
way. Beneath the covering of scales is the cortex or body of 
the fiber, made up of greatly elongated cells united into bundles, 
and in the center of the fiber there is sometimes a cavity or 
canal which may contain granules of pigment. 

Hair and wool are very similar in growth and structure, 
but wool is crimped, has more scales, the points of the scales 
are more open or projecting, and the entire fiber is more soft 




Fig. 81. Cross-Section of a Wool Fiber. 

a, Central canal, which is not present in most wools; b, cortex or body 
of fiber, composed of long, spindle-shaped cells which here appear oval be- 
cause they are cut transversely; c, wool cuticle, composed of scales. (After 
McMurtrie.) 

and flexible than hair. These small differences give to wool 
its special commercial values. Hair will not retain the twisted 
state given to it in spinning, but the crimp of wool causes the 
fibers to become entangled, and the minute scales hook to- 
gether and hold the fibers in position when wool is spun into 
yarn. Thus wool has a thread-forming quality which hair has 
not, preventing slipping and separation of the fibers in the 
yam. The entanglement and locking of the fibers is referred 
to as the felting quality of wool. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 257 

The peculiar structure of the wool fiber was first deter- 
mined by Youatt, a famous English observer and writer. In 
Merino wool, the scales or projections are very distinct and 
sharply pointed, and it was by an examination of Merino wool 
that Youatt determined the structure of the wool fiber. In 
the medium-wool breeds, the scales are less distinct and sharp, 
and in the long-wool breeds, they are rounded off and indistinct. 
In Merino wool, about 2400 of these scale ends are found to the 
inch; in the Southdown there are 2000 to 2080; and in the Lei- 
cester, 1850 to 1860. Hence, Merino wool is superior in felting 
quality, the others standing in a relation proportional to the 
figures given. 

Fineness of fiber. — Dr. William McMurtrie, who con- 
ducted extensive investigations of wools for the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture,* found the average diameter of the Merino 
fiber to be 1/1194 of an inch, while the Southdown had an 
average . diameter of 1/865, the Hampshire Down 1/769, the 
Lincoln 1/685, the Leicester 1/654, the Cotswold 1/605, 
and the Oxford Down 1/581. In 1860, American Merino 
fibers with a diameter of 1/1572, and American Saxon Merino 
fibers measuring 1/1875 of an inch in diameter were exhibited 
in London, showing the extreme fineness which may be secured 
in wools. 

Secretion and composition of yolk. — Opening into each 
wool follicle are a couple of sebaceous or oil glands, furnishing 
a profuse secretion of an oily or fatty material, called the yolk, 
which is thrown out at the same time the fiber is formed. This 
secretion consists largely of a soapy matter having a potassium 
base, together with an animal oil which gives to the yolk its 
peculiar odor. Yolk, then, is not strictly a grease or oil, but is 
a soap with an excess of oil. This explains why it dissolves 
freely in warm water and may be washed almost entirely out 
of the fleece, and why it cleanses and whitens the hands as soap 
does. The quantity and fluidity of the yolk vary greatly, being 
greater when the sheep are healthy and well fed, and varying 
also according to the breed. The yolk maintains the softness 
and pliancy of the fibers, and protects the scaly surface from 
injury such as might result from friction of the fibers against 
one another during the movements of the animal. It also helps 



* U. S. Dept. Agr. Report, Examination of Wools and Other Animal 
Fibers. 



258 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



to keep the fleece clean and free from a cotted or matted con- 
dition. The wool manufacturer removes the grease from wool 
by the scouring process. This is the first step in wool manu- 
facture. 

Woolens and worsteds. — When scoured wool is combed, 
that is, drawn through metal teeth, the fibers are made to lie 
parallel to each other and foreign matter and short fibers are 
combed out. This waste is called the "noils," and the remain- 
ing long fibers are called the "top." Wool used for combing 
under the Bradford or English system of manufacture must be 
strong and at least 23/2 inches long in order to give the yarn 
sufficient strength. Such wool is called combing wool. The 
yarn made from combed wool (top) is called worsted, and the 
cloths made of it are known as worsted goods. 





Fig. 82. Woolen and Worsted Yarns. 

In the woolen yarn above the short wool fibers are crossed in every 
direction, while in the worsted yarn below the fibers are longer and are laid 
parallel to each other. 

Wools which are short and much crimped and serratured 
are called clothing or carding wools. They have a high felting 
quality. In preparation for spinning they are put through card- 
ing machines which jumble the fibers together in any and every 
direction, forming a mixed mass from which the yarn is eventually 
drawn. The cloths made from such yarn are known as woolens. 

The difference between woolens and worsteds is largely 
due to the way the yarn for each is spun. In worsted yarn the 
fibers are arranged as parallel as possible by the combing process; 
in woolen yarn they are crossed in every direction so as to assist 
the felting or milling of the cloth. Yarn for woolen cloth is 
very slightly twisted, so as to leave the fibers as free as possible 
for the felting process; worsted yarn, on the contrary, is hard 
spun and made into a much stronger thread. By the process 
of manufacture, woolens are felted so as to leave little or no 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 259 

appearance of the thread, while in worsteds the threads are plainly- 
evident. Woolens usually have a fuzzy, downy surface, while 
worsteds have a smooth, hard finish. Worsteds hold their shape 
better than woolens. Worsted cloths have a more clearly- 
defined pattern and more firmly woven appearance than woolens. 
Woolen cloths are softer and the various colors are not so dis- 
tinct in the cloth. The principal worsted cloth is Serge, while 
woolens include several leading varieties such as Tweeds, Chev- 
iots, and Broadcloths. The manufacture of woolen underwear 
is also essentially a woolen process. 

Shoddy, obtained by tearing up woolen rags by machinery, 
now enters into the composition of all except the very finest 
woolen yarns, but cannot be used in the manufacture of worsted 
yam under the Bradford or English system. However, a vary- 
ing proportion of cotton threads are often woven into worsted 
cloth. 

Worsteds may be dyed in the top, the yarn, or the cloth. 
Woolens may be dyed in the wool, the yarn, or the cloth. 

Pounds of wool per pound of cloth. — For woolen goods, 
from 3 to 4.64 pounds of grease wool, with an average of 3.73 
pounds, are required to make 1 pound of cloth. The average 
amount of scoured wool required is 1.37 pounds. For worsted 
cloths, from 2.56 pounds to 4.55 pounds of grease wool is re- 
quired, with an average of 3.66 pounds. The average amount 
of scoured wool for 1 pound of worsted cloth is 1.55 pounds.* 

Classification of wools. — Wools may be classified according 
to their origin and also according to their value and adaptability 
for different uses. The classifications in common use in this 
country are as follows: 

Clipped wools and pulled wools. — The first distinction made 
in wools is to divide them into fleece or clipped wools and pulled 
wools. The former are the ordinary clipped wools coming to 
market in separate fleeces. These are the more valuable and 
constitute by far the greater portion of the wool of commerce. 
Pufled wools are those derived from the pelts of slaughtered 
sheep in the manner described later on. They are marketed 
in 500 pound bales. Pulled wools constitute about one-seventh 
of all the wool produced in the United States. 

Domestic, territory, and carpet wools.^ — Domestic wools 
are wools coming from the small farm flocks east of the Missouri 



U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, by F. R. Marshall and L. L. Heller. 



260 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

river. For the most part, the sheep are of mutton type and 
breeding. As compared to territory wools, these wools are 
usually clean and bright, due to the better protection and care 
given the sheep. Territory wools are those produced west of 
the Missouri river, and they derive their name from the fact 
that this section was formerly made up of Territories in distinc- 
tion to the States of the central and eastern sections. Territory 
wools are produced by the large flocks of range sheep which 
contain much fine-wool blood, though the use of medium- and 
long-wooled mutton rams is increasing. They shrink from 
63 to 70 per cent, on the average when scoured, and sometimes 
over 80 per cent., due to the presence in fleeces of sand, dirt, 
and considerable yolk. Carpet wools are inferior and low- 
priced wools containing much kemp or dead fibers, and are used 
in the manufacture of carpets and coarse blankets. Very little 
carpet wool is produced in this country. 

Domestic wools may be subdivided into two groups or sub- 
classes, known as "bright" and "semi-bright," depending on 
the whiteness and luster of the fiber. Bright wool is produced 
by Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, West Virginia, Kentucky, 
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. 
Semi-bright wool comes from the Dakotas, western Kansas, 
and Nebraska. They are midway between the bright and the 
territory in condition, having more sand and dirt than the 
bright but not as much as the territory. The best bright wools 
are those known as "Ohio" wools, produced not only in Ohio 
but also in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. More than half 
of the flocks of this region are of Merino breeding. Ohio wool 
is famous for strength, cleanliness, and general quality, and 
commands a premium on the market. 

The states which produce territory wool are Montana, 
Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and Washington. 
These are mainly range states. Sand storms deposit much 
sand and dirt in the fleeces. When the range is bare of snow 
in winter the wool often shrinks 5 per cent, more than when 
the ground has been covered. Because of the varying shrinkage 
of territory wools, they are sold on the market upon a clean or 
scoured basis. 

The clips of California, Oregon, Texas, Arizona, and New 
Mexico are no longer classed as territory wools due to the fact 
that they have rather distinct characteristics. In Texas, shear- 
ing is often practiced twice a year, in which case the wool comes 



Types and Maeket Classes of Live Stock 



261 



to market untied. In California, the northern counties shear 
once a year, but the middle and southern counties often shear 
twice a year, the wool shrinks more than that of the northern 
counties, and it comes to market untied. Oregon produces 
some excellent wool, though somewhat high in shrinkage. The 
state also produces what are known as valley wools, largely 
from long-wooled sheep. New Mexico and Arizona wools are 
very uneven in character and often kempy, due to lack of care 
of the sheep and inferior breeding. They come to market untied 
and are poorly put up. 




Fig. 83. Clothing and Combing Wools. 

Washed, unmerchantable, and unwashed. — Formerly the 
practice of washing sheep just prior to shearing was extensively 
followed in the eastern states. This gave rise to the terms 
of washed, unmerchantable, and unwashed. Unmerchantable 
wool is not unsaleable wool, but that which has been poorly 
washed. Fleeces may be unmerchantable for other reasons. 
The practice of washing is almost a thing of the past, and the 
use of these terms does not necessarily imply that the washing 
operation has actually taken place, but sometimes refers solely 
to shrinkage. Washed wools are lighter in color and condition, 



262 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



shrinking 3 or 4 per cent, less Lhan unmerchantable, and the 
latter shrinks about 3 or 4 per cent, less than the unwashed. 

Market classes and grades of wool. — Most American- 
grown wool is sacked just as the fleeces come from the sheep 
and sold at home to dealers. Before offering the wool to the 
manufacturer the dealer opens the sacks and makes up from his 
various purchases a number of piles, each containing only fleeces 
of similar character and value. This is called grading, and it 
is performed without untying the fleeces. 

The first division which the market makes in wools is to 
divide them into the Domestic and Territory classes. The 
advantages of domestic over territory wool have been mentioned. 
Each of these is again divided into the Combing and Clothing 
classes. Combing wool is usually worth about 10 per cent, 
more than the short or clothing wool, and the aim of the wool- 
grower is to produce combing wool. Each class is divided into 
grades, and in grading fleeces the main factor is fineness of fiber, 
although other factors such as length, shrinkage, and general 
character are considered. The various grades are adapted to 
the manufacture of different kinds of fabrics. Thus the wool 
dealer is enabled to supply the manufacturer not merely a cer- 
tain general class such as combing wool or clothing wool, but a 
particular kind or grade of fleeces within that class specially 
adapted to his mill. The complete classification may be rep- 
resented in outline as follows: 



DOMESTIC WOOLS. 



Combing wools 



Delainej Medium }°^*^" °"^ ^rade 

Half-blood 

Three-eighths-blood 

Quarter-blood 

Low quarter-blood 

Braid 



Clothing wools 

XX and X, washed or fine unwashed 

Half-blood clothing 
Three-eighths-blood clothing 
Quarter-blood clothing 



TERRITORY WOOLS. 



Combing wools 

Fine staple 

Fine medium staple 



usually one grade 



Half-blood staple 
Three-eighths-blood staple 
Quarter-blood staple 
Low quarter-blood staple 
Coarse, common, low, or 
braid 



Clothing wools 

Fine clothing] 

Fine medium \ usually one grade 

clothing J 
Half-blood clothing 
Three-eighths-blood clothing 
Quarter-blood clothing, or short 

quarter-blood 



often one grade 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 263 

As previously explained, combing wools are at least 2^ 
inches long without stretching, while clothing wools are all under 
that length. It will be noticed that much the same names are 
given to the grades within each class. The term "staple" as 
applied to territory wools means the same as the term "combing 
wool " 

If a Merino sheep east of the Missouri river grows a fleece 
that measures at least 23^2 inches long without stretching, it 




Fig. 84. Grades of Combing Wool. 

Fine combing at left and half-blood combing at right. 

grades as Delaine on the wool market. The same sheep west of 
the river grows a fleece that grades as Fine Staple or Fine Medium 
Staple. The Fine Staple or Fine Medium Staple fleece has a 
greater shrinkage than the Delaine fleece. This is the main 
distinction between the two. When scoured, the wools have 
much the same value. The eastern wool may be somewhat 
stronger, but in a general way the wool is the same in both 
fleeces. 



264 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

If a Merino sheep in the east grows a fleece less than 21/9 
inches long, it grades as XX or X, or as Fine Unwashed. Mar- 
ket usage has decreed that XX and X as grade names shall be 
used only in referring to washed clothing wools. XX is a some- 
what finer wool than X. Fine Unwashed corresponds to XX 
and X, but shrinks more in scouring. The same sheep in the 
west grows a fleece that grades as Fine Clothing or Fine Medium 
Clothing. Fine Clothing corresponds to XX, and Fine Medium 
Clothing corresponds to X, except that the territory wool shrinks 
more than the domestic. 

Similar comparisons might be made for the half-blood 
grade, the three-eighths-blood grade, etc. If we substitute the 
general term "Fine" for all the grades thus far discussed, we may 
say that each class of wool has the following grades: 

Fine 

Half-blood 

Three-eighths-blood 

Quarter-blood 

Low quarter-blood 

Low, coarse, common, or braid. 

In the early days of the American wool trade, the half- 
blood, three-eighths-blood, and quarter-blood grades referred 
supposedly to wools from sheep of half, three-eighths, and quar- 
ter Merino blood, but they have no such significance now. Wools 
grading as high as half-blood can come from sheep having no 
trace of Merino blood. On the other hand, quarter-blood would 
rarely come from a sheep containing any Merino blood. Low 
quarter-blood is a grade lower than quarter-blood, and braid 
is the lowest grade of all. It usually refers to luster wool such 
as might come from a Lincoln or a Cotswold sheep. The grading 
of wool in the wool houses is done by expert graders who know 
wools so well that at a glance they can determine the grade to 
which the wool belongs and the kind of material into which the 
wool will be made. Many of these wool graders may never 
have seen a sheep in fleece, neither do they know the breeds of 
sheep and the characteristic fleeces. Hence, the wool grade 
does not depend upon the breed of sheep, and the wool from 
different individuals of the same flock and breed may be graded 
differently Wool, then, is graded on the market according to 
its merit, regardless of the breeding of the sheep which grew it, 
although some of the names of the various grades may seem to 
indicate the breeding of the sheep. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 265 

Half-blood wool approaches fineness, but is not so finely- 
crimped as the fine grade. It is also somewhat longer in its class, 
and usually shrinks less in its class. Three-eighths-blood has 
a tendency toward the coarser wool. It is less crimped than 
half-blood and less elastic. It also shrinks less when scoured 
because it is less oily as a rule. Quarter-blood represents the 
next step down the scale in fineness and crimp, with still less 




Fig. 85. Grades of Combing Wool. 

Three-eighths-blood combing at left and quarter-blood combing at right. 

shrinkage. It is longer than three-eighths-blood. Practically 
all three-eighths-blood and quarter-blood wools are of combing 
length. Braid wool varies from A:}^ inches up to 12 or 13 inches 
in length. Its name comes from the fact that it is particularly 
suitable for the manufacture of braids. It is generally used, 




Fig. 86. Grades of Combing Wool. 

Low quarter-blood combing at right and braid wool at left. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 267 

however, in fabrics requiring long and coarse fibers. For bunt- 
ing or flags there is no other wool its equal. Because of its 
length and coarseness it does not appear as one of the grades of 
clothing wool. 

The foregoing statements regarding the comparative lengths 
and shrinkages of the various grades of wool may be illustrated 
by the following table* giving the most acceptable length and 
the estimated average shrinkage of each grade of Montana 
combing wools: 

Acceptable length 
Grade for an average Shrinkage — 

grade — inches. per cent. 

Fine and Fine Medium 2}4 64-65 

Half-blood 2H 61-62 

Three-eighths-blood 3^ 55-57 

Quarter-blood 4 51-53 

Braid 43^-13 46-48 

Classes and grades of wool from various breeds of sheep.^ 

The following listf shows in a general way how wool from the 
various breeds would be likely to grade. This table is presented 
because it will be of interest and because it will assist the reader 
who knows the fleeces characteristic of some or all of the breeds 
of sheep, but does not know the characteristics of the classes 
and grades of wool, to gain a clearer understanding of the latter. 

Breed Class and Grade of wool produced 

Merino (eastern states) Delaine, XX, X, or fine unwashed. 

Merino (range states) Fine and fine medium staple or clothing. 

Rambouillet Fine and fine medium staple or clothing and 

a small amount of half-blood. 

Southdown Half and three-eighths-blood (chiefly three- 
eighths combing or clothing, chiefly cloth- 
ing.) 

Shropshire Mainly three-eighths-blood, combing or cloth- 
ing. Some quarter-blood. 

Hampshire Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or 

clothing. 

Dorset Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or 

clothing. 

Suffolk Three-eighths-blood combing and clothing. 

Cheviot Quarter-blood combing. 

Oxford Quarter and low quarter-blood combing. 

Corriedale Three-eighths-blood combing. 

Cotswold 1 

Lincoln [ Low quarter-blood combing or braid. 

Leicester 



* Compiled from Nat'l. Wool Warehouse & Storage Co's. Bulletin, Dec, 
1915. 

tU. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 



268 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



Sorting wool. — The wool manufacturer buys from the wool 
dealer the grade of wool which he desires and thus secures fleeces 
which have a certain average degree of fineness. However, 
each fleece varies more or less in fineness. Wool from the lower 
thighs, called the "britch," is usually the coarsest part of the 
fleece. The shoulder wool is best in strength, quality, and 
length; the sides are next best, and quality decreases passing 
backward to the britch. Wool from the back is likely to con- 
tain hayseed and chaff. The belly wool is finer than any, but 
is short, frowzy, not so strong, and lacks character. A "frowzy" 
wool is one that appears lifeless, and is badly mussed, the fibers 
and locks lying topsy turvy. The wool from the head is short, 
coarse, and in dark-faced breeds is likely to contain black fibers. 
A fleece may be three-eighths-blood or half-blood on the shoulder, 
while the britch would be quarter-blood. For these reasons, 
the wool manufacturer usually sorts the wool which he buys. 
The fleece is untied, shaken out, and thrown upon a table having 
a slatted or wire-mesh top so that the loose dirt in the fleece 
will fall through. 

i The following table giving the results of an actual case of 
sorting a bag of wool will be of interest.* This bag contained 
fleeces that had been graded in the warehouse as half-blood. 
The gross weight was 245 pounds; weight of bag, 434 pounds; 
net weight of wool, 240^ pounds. 

Results of sorting a bag of half-blood Montana wool. 



Sort 



Regular sorts: 

X or three-quarters-blood . . . 

Half-blood combing 

Half-blood clothing 

Three-eighths-blood combing 

Three-eighths-blood clothing . 

Quarter-blood combing 

Short quarter-blood 

Low quarter-blood 

Off sorts: 

Stained and gray 

Shorts 

Fribs 

Clips 

String 

Loss in sorting 



Weight 


Percentage 


Value per 
pound 


Pounds 


Per cent. 


Cents 


11.21 


4.66 


21.0 


88.69 


36.84 


22.7 


12.90 


5.36 


21.6 


64.76 


26.90 


23.0 


24.33 


10.11 


20.0 


12.90 


5.36 


19.0 


4.55 


1.89 


17.0 


.55 


.23 


16.0 


.55 


.23 


14.0 


3.90 


1.62 


10.0 


3.32 


1.38 


5.0 


2.76 


1.15 


1.0 


1.37 


.57 




8.90 


3.70 





*U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 269 

The stained and gray sort is not usually made unless white 
goods are to be manufactured. Shorts consist of short wool 
such as grows about the face, or it may be due to double cutting 
in shearing. Fribs are short, sweaty, and dungy locks. Clips 
are locks so incrusted with foreign material that they cannot 
be scoured clean, but must be clipped off. The string is that 
used in tying the fleeces. Loss of weight in sorting depends 
upon the amount of sand and loose dirt in the wool. 

Other off sorts are often made from wools of various sec- 
tions. Some of these are tags, paint locks, and seedy. Tags 
are large dung locks which are badly stained and have a very 
high shrinkage. Paint locks require clipping off the painted 
ends of the locks. Seedy wool contains weed seeds, soft burs, 
etc. It must often be carbonized before using, as explained 
in a later paragraph. 

Wool pulling.— Wool pulleries may be divided into two 
groups^ — those owned by packers and forming a part of the by- 
products division of packing plants, and those owned and oper- 
ated independent of packing establishments. The wool pullery 
of a packing plant receives pelts daily, direct from the killing 
floor. They are at once placed in vats of cold water, which 
takes out all of the animal heat and removes some of the dirt 
and blood. The soaking continues from 12 to 24 hours. Pack- 
ing plants not equipped with pulleries salt their pelts, and when 
a quantity has accumulated send them to a pullery. Salted 
pelts are soaked 36 hours, as it requires considerable time to 
dissolve the salt out of the hide. When removed from the vats, 
the pelts are given mechanical treatment in a scrubbing machine 
which washes them in a spray of water, completing the removal 
of dirt, and leaving the fleece in an attractive, white condition. 
The wet pelts are then put in a centrifugal wringer which throws 
out the water to such an extent that the fleece is made very 
nearly dry. The pelts are next taken to a room where they are 
spread, fleece downward, upon wire screens and painted on the 
inner surface with a thick liquid bearing the trade name of 
"Depilatory," consisting of a mixture of sodium sulphide and 
slaked lime. Within 2 to 4 hours after this treatment the wool 
fibers become loosened and easily part from the hide, coming 
out by the roots when pulled. 

Before pulling, however, the pelts are taken to large rooms 
where they are spread out on the floor, fleece upwards, being 
grouped or classified according to the nature of the fleece. The 



270 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

pelts are then taken up and the wool pulled by hand. Coincident 
with the pulling the operator sorts the wool. Furthermore, 
the pullery keeps each month's product by itself, thus multiply- 
ing the assortments by twelve, and resulting finally in over two 
hundred kinds of pulled wool, each having a distinct trade name. 

Wool pulleries report a strong demand from wool manu- 
facturers for black wool which is used to produce various shades 
of natural gray by mixing it with white wool. Black wool thus 
sells at a premium, for the supply is small. Pelts that vary in 
color through various shades of gray and brown are not in the 
class of black pelts because the varying color makes them an 
unknown quantity in color mixing where definite results are 
wanted. Very few black fleeces are uniformly black. They 
often contain white, gray, and brown fibers mixed with the 
black. This explains why the so-called black fleece sells at a 
discount, while the locks of black wool collected by the wool 
pullery bring a premium. 

The growth of wool must be at least three-fourths of an 
inch before it may be profitably pulled. Some pelts are not 
pulled, no matter how long the fleece may be, because the wool 
is not saleable, or not valuable enough to pay for pulling. 

Scouring. — Scouring is the first process in wool manufac- 
turing. The purpose of the scouring process is the removal of 
dirt and grease from the wool. It does not remove paint, burs, 
seeds, chaff, nor twine. Paint is clipped from the wool before 
scouring. If the grease wool comes to the scouring plant in 
bales, it is first put through a shredding machine which loosens 
it. This machine is equipped with a blower for the removal 
of dust, and a screen for the removal of heavy dirt. Scouring 
is accomplished by passing the wool through a series of four 
bowls or vats, each containing a different liquor. These liquors 
are composed as follows: 

Bowl No. 1 — Mild alkaline solution, preferably potassium; temperature 

130 degrees Fahrenheit. 
Bowl No. 2 — Same alkaline solution as first bowl, plus soap; should be 

a potash soap; temperature 120 degrees. 
Bowl No. 3 — Soap solution only; temperature 110 degrees. 
Bowl No. 4 — Luke warm water. 

Nearly all the yolk or grease is removed from the wool in 
the first bowl. This is done by the saponification of the oil, 
the soap readily dissolving in the warm liquid. The action of 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 271 

the soap in the second and third bowls is to whiten the wool 
and give it "life" which it loses in bowl No. 1. After rinsing in 
the fourth bowl, the wool is passed through a dryer. 

During treatment in the bowls, automatic rakes keep the 
wool moving slowly, for if it is moved rapidly through the liquids 
it forms a ropy mass. The yolk forms an emulsion in the bowls 
and may be recovered by chemical processes. It is known as 
"lanolin," and is much used in salves and ointments. Clipped 
wools shrink as much as 65 per cent, or more in scouring, while 
pulled wools shrink about 27 per cent, on the average and often 
shrink only 10 per cent. The difference is due to the very 
thorough washing given to pelts before pulling. 

Carbonization. — Burs and much other vegetable matter 
cannot be taken from wool in scouring. In the combing process, 
by which worsteds are made, this vegetable matter is combed 
out with the noils (short fibers not suitable for worsted yarn). 
It can be eliminated from the noils or from clothing wools in- 
tended for carding or woolen purposes only by carbonization. 
This consists in immersing the wool in a dilute sulphuric acid 
or aluminum chloride solution, and then drying it at about 
200°F. This chars the burs and vegetable matter which are 
then removed by crushing and dusting with little or no change 
in the wool fiber. The process costs from 13^ to 3 cents a pound 
and results in an average loss of about 10 per cent, in weight. 
Thus we see why the manufacturer and the wool dealer have a 
right to object to burry wool, and why they offer a much lower 
price for it than for clean wool. 

Wool clip of world. — Australia and New Zealand combined 
produce about 25 per cent, of the world's wool clip, the Russian 
Empire 15 per cent., the United States 12 per cent., Argentina 
6 per cent., the Union of South Africa 6 per cent., Uruguay 5 
per cent.. The United Kingdom 4.5 per cent., Turkey in Asia 
3.3 per cent., and France 2.8 per cent. 

American wools and wool growing. — American sheep are 
said to have no superior in constitutional vigor and strength 
of wool fiber. The average weight of fleece of American sheep 
has shown much improvement. In 1840 it was only 1.9 pounds; 
in 1850 it was 2.4 pounds; in 1860 it was 2.7 pounds; in 1870 
it was 3.5 pounds; in 1880 it was 4.4 pounds; in 1890 it was 
4.8 pounds; in 1900 it was 6 pounds; in 1910 it was 6.7 pounds; 
in 1918 it was 7.1 pounds. The annual wool clip since 1840 is 
shown by the following figures: 



272 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



1840 35,802,114 pounds 

1850 52,516,959 pounds 

1860 60,264,913 pounds 

1870 162,000,000 pounds 

1880 232,500,000 pounds 

1890 276,000,000 pounds 

1900 288,636,621 pounds 

1910 336,896,903 pounds 

1918 257,921,000 pounds 

According to the estimates of the National Association of 
Wool Manufacturers, the leading states in number of sheep, 
average weight of fleece, and pounds of wool produced during 
1918 were as follows: 



States 


Number 

of 
fleeces 


Average 
weight 
of fleece 


Wool 

product, 

raw 


Per cent. 

of 
shrinkage 


Scoured 
wool 


1 . Wyoming . . . 

2 . Montana .... 

3 . Idaho 

4 . Ohio 

5 . Utah 

6. New Mexico. 

7 . California . . 

8. Michigan. . . 

9 . Oregon 

10. Texas 


4,051,000 
2,847,000 
2,468,000 
1,726,000 
2,052,000 
3,059,000 
1,792,000 
1,184,000 
1,562,000 
1,607,000 


Lbs. 

8.4 
8.2 
7.9 
7.3 
7.7 
5.6 
7.0 
7.4 
8.0 
7.0 


Lbs. 

34,026,000 
23,342,000 
19,500,000 
12,600,000 
15,800,000 
17,132,000 
12,545,000 
8,765,000 
12,500,000 
11,250,000 


67 
64 
63 
53 
65 
68 
64 
50 
67 
67 


Lbs. 

11,228,580 
8,403,120 
7,215,000 
5,922,000 
5,530,000 
5,482,240 
4,526,200 
4,382,500 
4,125,000 
3,712,500 



This table brings out some important distinctions in wools. 
The figures for shrink are interesting; the western states exceed 
the eastern states by 13 to 17 per cent., due to the greater per- 
centage of Merino blood in range flocks and hence a more greasy- 
wool with a greater shrink. Western wools also contain more 
sand and dirt. The introduction of mutton sheep into the corn- 
belt has decreased the average weight of fleece, but has im- 
proved the shrinkage. The entire clip of the United States is 
estimated to shrink 60.8 per cent. Wool buyers fix the price 
on a scoured basis, this being the fairest method of dealing and 
also the fairest basis on which to compare production by states. 
Wyoming has the most sheep, and Rhode Island the fewest. 
Washington has the highest average weight of fleece, which is 
8.6 pounds, and Georgia is lowest with 2.9 pounds. Virginia 
has the lowest per cent, of shrinkage, which is 38 per cent., and 
Nevada with 70 per cent, has the most. 

Imports and exports of wool. — During the fiscal year, 1913- 
'14, the United States imported 195,293,255 pounds of wool 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 273 

valued at $35,579,823. The average value per pound would 
thus be 18.1 cents. We export less than 100,000 pounds of wool 
annually. American wool growers produce slightly more than 
one-half of the wool used by American wool manufacturers. 
Australia is the largest exporter of wool, the figure for the cal- 
endar year, 1912, being 693,496,000 pounds; Argentina ranked 
second with 363,680,000 pounds; South Africa was third with 
185,471,000 pounds; and New Zealand was fourth with 175,982,000 
pounds. The four countries mentioned furnish over three- 
fifths of the exports of the world. The principal importing and 
wool-manufacturing countries are France, Great Britain, Ger- 
many, United States, and Belgium, in the order named. These 
five countries annually consume over four-fifths of the total 
imports of the world. 

Principal American wool markets. — The principal wool 
markets in the United States are Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, 
St. Louis, and New York. During the past few years Boston 
has handled nearly 75 per cent, of the total wool crop of this 
country, and nearly 60 per cent, of the foreign wool shipped into 
this country. Wool is purchased from the producer by different 
methods depending upon the size of the clip. Domestic wools 
are largely sold to local wool buyers who take the whole clip 
of the neighborhood regardless of quality or cleanliness. Some- 
times the country storekeeper buys wool and resells to the 
travelling buyer. Cooperative wool-selling agencies have been 
formed in certain localities, particularly in Minnesota and Wis- 
consin. The advantages of these organizations are discussed 
in a later paragraph. Territory wools are sold mostly to buyers 
representing eastern wool dealers. In a few cases they are sold 
to buyers representing manufacturers. The western wool 
grower may also consign his clip to a commission house to be 
stored and sold for a certain commission charge. 

Factors that determine the value of wool.— The value of 
wool depends upon certain well-established factors, many of 
which have been indicated and discussed in the foregoing para- 
graphs on wools and wool manufacture. Following is a list of 
these factors.* 

1. Shrinkage. — American wools may shrink from 25 to 80 
per cent. The loss in scouring is a complete loss to the manu- 
facturer. Grease wools are valued on a scoured basis. Sand, 



■U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 



274 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



dust, dirt, burs, and seeds lower the yield and affect the value 
of the clean wool. The following table shows the important 
part that shrinkage plays in fixing prices. At the top are various 
prices per pound of clean or scoured wool. In the column to 
the left are various percentages of shrinkage. By the use of this 
table we find, for example, that if clean wool is worth $1.00 per 
pound and the shrinkage is 65 per cent., the wool is worth 35 
cents in the grease, whereas, if the shrinkage is 60 per cent., 
the grease wool is worth 40 cents. 

Relative prices of scoured and raw wool at varying percemages of shrinkage. 



Shrinkage 


Price of clean or scoured wool (cents) 




30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


per cent. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


25 


23 


30 


38 


45 


53 


60 


68 


75 


83 


90 


98 


105 


113 


30 


21 


28 


35 


42 


49 


56 


63 


70 


77 


84 


91 


98 


105 


35 


20 


26 


33 


39 


46 


52 


59 


65 


72 


78 


85 


91 


98 


40 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


78 


84 


90 


45 


17 


22 


28 


33 


39 


44 


50 


55 


61 


66 


72 


77 


83 


50 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 


70 


75 


55 


14 


18 


23 


27 


32 


36 


41 


45 


50 


54 


59 


63 


68 


60 


12 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


65 


11 


14 


18 


21 


25 


28 


32 


35 


39 


42 


46 


49 


53 


70 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


33 


36 


39 


42 


45 


75 


8 


10 


13 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


28 


30 


33 


35 


38 


80 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 



2. Class and grade of the wool. — Ordinarily combing 
wools are worth about 10 per cent, more than the short or cloth- 
ing wools. 

3. Character in wool. — This refers to the color or white- 
ness of the fiber, the soundness, luster, evenness of distribution 
of yolk, and the degree of crimp which gives elasticity to the 
fiber, A fine Merino fiber may be easily stretched by hand 
30 per cent, beyond its crimped length, and by gradual pressure 
on a machine fully that much more. A white fiber may be 
used in the manufacture of white cloth, or may be dyed any 
desired color. Black, brown, or gray wool can be used only in 
dark-colored fabrics, and furthermore it is difficult to stain these 
wools exactly the same shade as white wool. Kemp, which are 
hair-like fibers, found mostly on the thighs of coarse-wooled 
sheep, will absorb little dye, if any at all, and fleeces containing 
kemp are discriminated against as lacking in character. In 
kemp the outer scales lie so closely against the body of the 
fiber that the dye cannot penetrate. The body of the fiber 
alone absorbs the dye. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 275 

4. Strength of fiber. — Tender spots and breaks affect the 
value of the wool, may change its class or grade, and lessen the 
strength of the yarn. 

5. Use of paint for branding sheep. — This lowers the 
value of the fleece, necessitates an extra sort at the mill, and 
requires that the painted ends be clipped off the fibers before 
scouring. 

6. Tags. — These are worth about one-third as much as 
good wool. At time of shearing they should be sacked separate- 
ly. They are objectionable in the fleece because they shrink 



Fig. 87. Tender Wool Showing Break. 

much more in scouring than the rest of the fleece, and are liable 
to stain the surrounding wool, especially when wet. 

7. Wet wool. — In wet wool the fibers may be weakened, 
and there is danger of spontaneous combustion. It may also 
cause staining, especially when tags are present. 

8. Burs. — As has been pointed out, burs cause much 
trouble and extra expense in manufacture, and hence lower the 
value of the fleece considerably. 

9. Improper tying. — The fleece should be tied so that no 
locks or pieces fall out. These are difficult to sort and buyers 
object to them when present in large quantities. The use of 



276 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

sisal or binder twine is seriously objected to by dealers and 
manufacturers because the fibers of the twine shred off and 
become mixed with the wool and blemish the fabrics made from 
it. A small, light twine of twisted paper, especially intended 
for the use of wool growers, is now on the market and should be 
used exclusively. 

10. Buck fleeces. — These contain more grease than other 
fleeces and hence shrink more in scouring. They should be 
kept separate. 

11. Black wool. — A black fleece packed with white ones 
is almost certain to contaminate the latter due to some of the 
black fibers becoming mixed in the white. Black wool should 
be packed separately. Black fleeces sell at a discount because 
they are usually not an even black, but contain white, gray, 
and brown fibers, often more of these than of black. 

12. Cotted or matted fleeces. — It is necessary to run these 
through an opener, which is not done with ordinary wool. 

13. Hand and machine shearing. — Machine shearing re- 
sults in a heavier fleece, longer fibers, and freedom from second 
cuts. Machine shearing may even result in changing the class 
from clothing to combing. 

14. Packing wool. — Lamb, ewe, and wether fleeces should 
be packed in separate bags if possible. Lambs' wool is usually 
more valuable because of lighter shrinkage. Sewing bags with 
sisal or other unsuitable twine creates a bad impression. The 
bag should be sewed securely with a stout, hard -finished twine 
so as not to burst open. 

Marketing wool properly. — Poor methods of sheep hus- 
bandry annually result in the loss of many thousands of dollars 
to wool growers. Neglect of flocks in winter, filthy conditions 
of keep, carelessness in handling, weedy pastures, the use of oil 
paint or tar to mark sheep, failure to separate the tags when the 
sheep are shorn, and improper tying of fleeces are factors which 
greatly lessen the returns to wool producers. The loss is large 
because of the presence in fleeces of seeds, burs, dust, chaff, 
sand, manure, and other foreign material, and because unneces- 
sary quantities of unreasonably large twine are used, or because 
a kind of twine is used that injures the cloth made from the 
wool. Sometimes there is enough twine around one fleece to 
tie a half-dozen or more fleeces. Even baling wire has been used 
in some instances. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 277 

The Animal Husbandry Division of the U. S. Bureau of 
Animal Industry* suggests the following rules as of fundamental 
importance in the improvement of American wools : 

1. Adhere to a settled policy of breeding the type of sheep 
suitable to the locality. 

2. Sack lambs', ewes', wethers', and all buck or very oily 
fleeces separately. 

3. Shear all black sheep at one time, preferably last, and 
put the wool in separate sacks. 

4. Remove and sack separately all tags, and then allow 
no tag discount upon the clip as a whole. 

5. Have slatted floors in the holding pens. 

6. Use a smooth, light, and hard glazed (preferably paper) 
twine. 

7. Securely knot the string on each fleece. 

8. Turn sacks wrong side out and shake well before filling. 

9. Keep wool dry at all times. 

10. Make the brands on the sheep as small as possible 
and avoid tar brands. 

11. Know the grade and value of your wool and price it 
accordingly. 

12. Do not sweat sheep excessively before shearing. 

13. Keep the floor sweepings out of the wool. 

14. Do not sell the wool before it is grown. 

15. When all these rules are followed place your personal 
brand or your, name upon the bags or bales. 

The Australian plan of handling the wool clip has recently 
been strongly advocated by the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry 
and has already been adopted by a few ranchmen in Wyoming, 
Montana, and Nevada. Under this plan the wool is graded at 
time of shearing, resulting in standard grades of wool which may 
be bought and sold like any other standard commodities. The 
belly wool is separated from the fleece by the shearer, and all 
bellies from the same kind of sheep are baled together. The 
fleece, minus the belly, is thrown spread out upon a table having 
a slatted top to allow loose, heavy pieces of wool and dirt to 
reach the floor. The fleece is then "skirted." This consists 
in removing some of the wool from the edges of the fleece. In 
cross-bred sheep and in some Merinos the lower thigh wool is 
materially coarser than the body of the fleece, and when this is 



"U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 



278 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

removed, an even quality of wool is left in the fleece. The 
fleece is then graded into one of several grades according to 
length, fineness, shrinkage, and character. The fleece is not 
tied before baling. When opened in the East the wool has lost 
nothing by baling and makes a good appearance. 

The Australian system, so-called because it is universally 
practiced by Australian wool growers, is educational to the 
western wool grower who learns much regarding the kinds and 
values of wools produced by his sheep, and it eliminates the 
usual further handling undergone by most clips in dealers' ware- 
houses before sale to manufacturers is attempted. Many 
growers realize for the first time the great amount of clothing 
wool they are producing and realize as well the variety of grades 
of wool that come from sheep of supposedly uniform type but 
in the breeding of which they had not adhered to a distinct 
standard of fleece in the selection of rams. 

Advantage of pooling farm-grown wools. — During the last 
few years a few counties in the farming states have marketed 
their wools through their farm bureaus on a pooling basis. In 
1915, Otsego County, N. Y., pooled and sold 20,000 pounds of 
wool at an advance of 43^2 cents per pound over prices offered 
at the same time by the local dealers. Because of the success 
of this method of marketing, Ohio and Iowa have organized 
state wool growers' associations with the object of pooling all 
the wool of the state. The plan is meeting with marked success. 
Under this plan of selling collectively small lots of farm wools, 
it becomes practicable to do the grading needed to secure fair 
prices to all members. The farmer who produces a good clip 
of wool will receive a just price instead of the usual flat price 
offered by the local dealer for all fleeces, good, bad, and indif- 
ferent. 

Mohair. — This is the product of the Angora goat. The fiber 
is coarse, very long, exceedingly lustrous, and has very little 
crimp. It is used in the manufacture of braids, felts, linings, 
and plushes. It is also used extensively as a substitute for 
human hair in switches and wigs. 



PART THREE. 
SWINE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The hog is universally known as the "Mortgage Lifter." 
No other animal has contributed more toward the success of 
farming in the United States. This country leads the world 
in hog breeding and pork production. The money-making 
ability of the hog is based on the following advantages of the 
hog and of hog raising: 

1. Hogs are the most efficient converters of grain and 
certain other feeds into meat. They make larger gains in weight 
in proportion to feed consumed than other farm animals. 

2. They are most prolific, commonly farrowing from 6 to 
10 pigs, and will raise two litters per year. 

3. Returns come quickly. The pigs may be marketed 
within ten months after the sows are bred. The sow may be 
bred when eight months old, farrowing her first litter at twelve 
months of age. 

4. Of all meat-producing farm animals, the pig is best 
adapted to diversified and intensified farming where a large 
income is desired from a small acreage. 

5. The hog has a higher dressing percentage than any 
other animal, and a larger proportion of the live weight is edible 
than of any other animal. 

6. Pork is the most nutritious meat and has better curing 
and keeping qualities than any other meat. 

7. No other animal equals the hog in its fat-storing ability, 
and hog fat is the most valuable fat produced by domestic 
animals. 

8. Hogs are the most efficient farm animals in converting 
certain wastes and by-products into profits. This statement 
applies to grain wasted by fattening cattle, utilization of garbage, 
and utilization of dairy by-products such as skim milk. In some 
wooded sections of the country, pigs convert acorns, other mast, 
and roots into saleable form. 

279 



280 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

9. Hog raising requires a smaller investment in animals 
and equipment and yields quicker and relatively larger results 
than any other branch of animal husbandry. 

Swine are useful as a source of meat and lard. Some swine 
produce meat only, and some produce lard as well as meat. 
Differences in the demands of consumers of pork, together with 
differences in the kinds of feed available for pork production, 
have resulted in the establishment of two distinct types of swine 
— lard type and bacon type. The lard hog is an American pro- 
duction found chiefly in the cornbelt states where corn is the 
principal feed for all farm animals. Corn is a great fattening 
feed, and when fed to hogs it is converted into fat from which 
lard is made. Breeders have therefore developed a type of hog 
specially adapted to converting feed, principally corn, into fat, 
and at the same time growing a carcass highly valued for the 
various cuts of meat which it yields. 

The bacon hog is also found in America, principally in 
Canada, however, which is outside the cornbelt. In Canada 
the feeds available for pork production are peas, barley, wheat, 
oats, rye, skim milk, and roots. As compared with corn, these 
feeds are not so fattening; they are muscle builders, and hogs 
produced with feuch feeds take on relatively little fat and are not 
useful as a source of lard. Canadians have made no effort to 
compete with the hogs of the cornbelt; instead they produce 
a hog suitable for the English and Canadian trade — a hog whose 
carcass yields the largest proportion of high-grade bacon. 

From what has been said it may appear that there is no 
real hereditary difference in the temperaments and make-ups 
of the two types of hogs, but that the differences between them 
are solely the result of differences in the feeds upon which they 
are produced. This is largely true, yet it is a fact that when 
pigs of the bacon type are brought into the cornbelt and fed 
along with lard hogs, they never entirely lose the bacon type; 
and when the lard hog is taken into a bacon-producing section 
and fed with bacon hogs, there is the same degree of change, 
but the lard hog does not lose his identity under such a system 
of feeding. Therefore we must conclude that there is something 
besides the difference in the feeds which accounts for the two 
distinct types; in other words, there is an hereditary difference 
between the two kinds of swine. 

These facts in regard to swine are no more unique than 
the results of efforts by some men to produce milk from beef 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 281 

cattle, or beef from dairy cattle, or mutton from fine-wooled 
sheep. In such instances, we find dairy-bred steers tending 
toward the form of the beef animal, we find beef cattle taking 
on somewhat the appearance of the dairy animal, and we find 
that the Merino approaches nearer to mutton type. Careful 
selection and breeding and the establishment of definite types 
of animals suitable to special purposes cannot accomplish the 
desired ends unaided. The feeding and care must receive as 
much attention as the breeding. No matter how well bred an 
animal may be, and no matter how great may be its tendency 
to conform to a given type, it must enjoy a favorable environ- 
ment before its inherited good qualities can fully assert them- 
selves and thereby enable the animal to fulfill its mission. 

In America the lard type of swine is represented by the 
Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, Berkshire, and 
Hampshire breeds. The bacon type includes two breeds, the 
Yorkshire and Tamworth. The Berkshire and Hampshire do 
not possess true fat or lard type, but occupy a position about 
midway between the bacon and lard types, being general-pur- 
pose breeds. 

Definition of Hog Terms. 

Boar. — Breeding male, any age. 

Sow. — The female, any age. 

Gilt. — A young sow, usually under twelve months and before 
she has farrowed a litter. 

Barrow. — Unsexed male, castrated when a young pig. The 
best age to castrate pigs is from 6 to 8 weeks old, before weaning. 

Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far ad- 
vanced toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in 
head, neck, and forequarters. This constitutes coarseness in 
a market animal. 

Shote. — A young hog weighing from 100 to 150 pounds. 



CHAPTER XXL 
THE AMERICAN OR LARD-TYPE HOG. 

The United States has created comparatively few of the 
breeds now found within her borders. By the time this coun- 
try reached that stage in her live-stock development when im- 
provement in domestic animals became imperative, European 
nations had met and solved a similar problem by the creation 
of numerous useful breeds. It was but natural, therefore, that 
many of these foreign breeds were imported to this country, 
and it was fortunate indeed that most of them proved fully 
capable of fulfilling the requirements of our stock growers. We 
were thus afforded an easy short cut across what would have 
been a long, laborious period in the development of our live- 
stock industry. We borrowed whenever such procedure was 
practicable, and the fact that we have never found it really 
necessary to create a breed of draft or carriage horses, beef, 
dairy, or dual-purpose cattle, mutton sheep, or bacon hogs shows 
how great is our indebtedness to the breeders of Europe. 

Our needs were not entirely met, however, for we have 
created a breed of trotting horses, a breed of saddle horses, a 
breed of fine-wooled sheep, and a number of breeds of lard-type 
swine. We have also found it necessary to modify slightly 
some of the breeds we have adopted, and to our credit it may 
be said that we have made certain changes in some of these 
adopted breeds which, as viewed from the standpoint of American 
conditions and requirements, represent decided improvements. 
The Polled Shorthorn, the Polled Hereford, the "American-type" 
Hereford, and the "American-type" Berkshire are examples of 
such modifications. 

The extended patronage which we have given to foreign 
stock and the lack of necessity for developing breeds of our 
own, while highly advantageous, has tended to dim our own 
glory as a live-stock breeding nation. If, because of this fact, 
our live-stock industry needs a redeeming feature, it is furnished 
by the creation of a distinctly American type of hog, which 
includes several breeds. European breeds of swine proved so 
fully incompetent to make pork under American conditions that 
our breeders found it necessary to create distinctly new breeds- 

282 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 283 

of a new type, and this work has been so well done as to give us 
a clear title to the distinction of leading the world in swine 
breeding and in pork production. 

Our conditions demand a type of swine possessing a mod- 
erate degree of compactness of form, great breadth of back, 
much fullness of ham, medium shortness of leg, rapid and heavy 
fattening qualities, and quickness of maturity. Such a type 
has been developed and maintained by American swine breeders. 
On account of its heavy and easy fattening qualities, it is com- 
monly referred to as the lard-type hog. Its ability to assimilate 
the carbohydrates of corn and build up a valuable fat from which 
lard is made has played no small part in the rapid development 
of American agriculture and in the prosperity of our farmers. 
"King Corn and the American Hog" have always constituted 
an invincible combination, creating a channel of disposal for the 
former in the early days when there was a great surplus of that 
food stuff, and supplying the people of this country with highly 
palatable and nutritious meat at a moderate price. 

The following description applies particularly to the fat 
barrow raised and fattened for the market. The type desired 
in lard hogs for breeding purposes is described in Chapter 
XXVI. 

The general appearance of the lard-type hog fattened for 
the market embodies a broad, deep, fairly compact, and rather 
short-legged conformation, together with great smoothness. 
Both the head and neck are short and wide, the top is very broad 
and slightly arched, the sides are deep, and the hams are massive. 
As viewed from the side the lard-type hog shows great depth of 
body, moderate length, a slightly arched top line from head to 
tail, and a straight underline that tends to be rather close to 
the ground. He should be as deep in front as behind, in other 
words, symmetrical. When viewed from behind, the hams 
show great breadth or thickness, not only at the top but also 
at the lower part just above the hocks. When a view is taken 
directly down upon the top of the hog, he should exhibit great 
width at all points along the top from shoulders to tail. The 
shoulders should not be wider than the rest of the hog, nor 
should the hog taper in width from front to rear, but be uni- 
formly very wide from one end to the other, thus presenting a 
balanced or symmetrical conformation and increasing the value 
of the carcass. Much quality should be shown in head, ear, 
coat, skin, smoothness of form, and fineness and smoothness 



284 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



of bone and joints. This type is disposed to be mild and quiet 
in disposition, but a sluggish, inactive hog is an objectionable 
extreme. 

The head is of medium size, rather short, broad between 
the eyes, and short of snout. A narrow head and finely pointed 
snout are indications of a poor feeder. The shape and length 
of head vary according to the breed, but in none of the lard breeds 
is much length or narrowness desirable. The eyes should be as 
large, prominent, and clear as possible, a small, sunken eye 
obscured by rolls of fat around the socket being objectionable. 
The carriage of the ear varies according to the breed, being erect 
in some and drooping or broken in others. All the breeds, how-^ 
ever, should have a fine and medium sized ear neatly attached to 










Fig. 88. Points of the Hog. 






1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 


Snout 

Eye 

Ear 

Cheek 

Jowl 

Poll 


7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 


Neck 13. Back 
Shoulder 14. Loin 
Foreleg 15. Side 
Pastern 16. Belly 
Toes 17. Fore flank 
Dew claw 


18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 


Hind flank 
Rump 
Ham 
Hind leg 
Tail 



the head. The jowl should be well developed or full, and should 
extend back into the shoulder. It should not be loose and flabby, 
but rather trim and firm. The cheeks and jowl should be free 
from wrinkles or seams. The poll of the head should be broad 
and carry forward prominently. 

The neck should be short and wide, and blend smoothly 
with the shoulder. The neck should be broad on top, and it 
should be deep. A neck that is narrow or peaked on top and 
rather long is not often associated with a body of the desired 
conformation. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 285 

The shoulders are very frequently too open and prominent, 
so that as one looks down at the top of the hog the shoulders 
are found to be much the widest part of the animal. They 
should be well laid in, very smooth, and have no greater width 
than the rest of the body, such a hog being much more desirable 
from a market and carcass point of view. The tops of the 
shoulders should not stand open and apart, but should be laid 
together and thickly fleshed so as to present a broad, smooth 
surface in harmony with the rest of the top. 

The front legs should be medium short or short, this being 
a somewhat variable feature depending on the breed, and they 
must also be straight. It is especially important that the pas- 
terns shall be short, upright, and very strong, and that the toes 
shall be strong also. These points should be particularly em- 
phasized, for it is a fact that weak, broken-down pasterns and 
weak, spreading toes are among the most common and most 
serious faults to be found in swine of the lard type. Weak legs 
may be due to a natural or inherited weakness, or to improper 
feeding during the growing period. If growing pigs are fed 
on corn exclusively, they are liable to develop weakness of the 
legs, because corn does not carry sufficient bone- and muscle- 
building constituents to satisfy the demands of the animal 
during the growing period. The bone of the market hog should 
be fine, yet sufficient to carry the weight of the hog. Refine- 
ment of bone is pleasing to the butcher because it is associated 
with general refinement of the entire animal, thus insuring a 
clean-cut carcass of quality. 

The chest is an evidence of the constitutional vigor pos- 
sessed by the animal. It should be wide and deep, filling out 
behind the shoulders and elbows and affording a large heart- 
girth. The underline should not cut up between the fore legs, 
but carry straight forward so as to give as much depth through 
the chest as through the middle of the body. 

The back and loin of the lard hog are very important parts. 
They should be medium long and very wide, and, as the animal 
is viewed from the side, they should be slightly arched. The 
top of the hog should be very deeply fleshed so as to build the 
back and loin out level and square on either side of the middle 
line, thus forming a rather well-marked corner at the junction 
with the upper border of the side. There will thus be no marked 
rounding off from the middle line, but a gentle arch over the top 
from side to side and great width of top due to well-sprung ribs 



286 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



and very heavy fleshing. A "ridgy" back is an evidence of lack 
of fleshing, and a narrow, "sunfish" conformation is very faulty 
for the same reason, A dip in the back, or sway-back conforma- 
tion, greatly detracts from the appearance of the animal and 
may indicate weakness of muscling; hence the cuts from the 
back and loin may be lacking in lean meat. 

The sides of the hog should carry down straight and deep 
from top to bottom, and should be neither long nor short, but 
moderate in length. Very short hogs raised and fed for mark-et 
are open to objection because such a tjrpe does not grow rapidly. 
On the other hand, extreme length is secured at the expense of 




Fig. 89. Correct Type in the Fat Barrow. 

Poland-China barrow, Grand Champion at the 1913 International. 
Bred and exhibited by John Francis & Sons, New Lenox, 111. Lengthy, 
deep, symmetrical, and smooth. This hog has remarkable quality in head, 
ear, hair, and bone. His legs are short and his pasterns strong. 

width and depth, and also at the expense of quick fattening 
qualities. For these reasons, extremes in either direction are 
to be avoided. When fattened for the market, the sides should 
be thickly and smoothly fleshed so that every point along the 
side fills out to meet the same straight line from shoulder to 
ham. Wrinkles in the skin along the side are objectionable 
because they injure the smoothness of appearance which is so 
desirable, and if the wrinkles are very deep and are permanent. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 287 

that is, do not disappear when the hog changes position, they are 
called creases or seams and are highly undesirable. These seams 
most often occur just behind the shoulder, but they may occur 
all along the side. They are due to creases in the skin and in the 
flesh underlying the skin, so that when the fingers are inserted 
into them they are found to be deep and pronounced. They 
indicate lack of quality and lack of evenness in fleshing, and are 
especially objectionable because they remain in the side meat even 
after it has been pressed and cured by the packer, thereby injur- 
ing the appearance of such cuts and affecting their selling price. 

The belly should be straight or "well tucked up," thus 
insuring a good dressing percentage when the hog is killed. 
The belly should be firm, not flabby, and should be wide rather 
than narrow or V-shaped. 

The rump should be long and as wide as the rest of the top, 
and it should carry out from hips to end of body with a slight 
curve downward to coincide with the slight arch of the entire 
top from head to tail. Very often the rump will be found very 
steep or drooping, the hips being carried too high and the tail 
set very low. Accompanying this kind of a rump, and to a 
certain extent causing it, is a faulty position of the hind legs, the 
feet being set too far under the body. This constitutes a weak 
conformation of the hindquarter, and gives the animal an un- 
gainly appearance. The rump should carry out wide on either 
side of the tail to form rather square corners, and should not 
taper in width from hips to end of body, but be uniform in 
width throughout. When the hog is fat, the tail sets in a socket. 

The hams really include the rump as well as the thighs and 
twist. They should be very large and well developed, being 
plump and thick from every point of view. The thickness should 
carry down to the hocks, and the space between the hind legs 
and above the hocks should be filled with flesh. Loose, flabby 
hams are undesirable because they carry too much outside fat 
and require too much trimming off before they can be sold. 
Some hams lose fifteen per cent, in trimming at the packing 
house. The hams should be reasonably firm in fleshing and 
neat in form, yet very plump, wide, and deep. 

The hind legs should be medium short, or short, and should 
carry down straight and vertical from the hocks to the ground. 
The pasterns should be short, upright, and very strong, the feet 
well formed, and the toes strong. The bone of the market hog 
should exhibit considerable refinement. 



288 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The hair should be straight rather than curly, and should 
be fine. A harsh, bristly coat is an evidence of coarseness. A 
curly coat is objectionable because curly hair is usually coarser 
than straight hair, and curly-coated hogs do not shed their coats 
properly, which injures the appearance. A swirl or rose in the 
hair on the back or rump detracts from the appearance, and is 
objectionable for that reason. The hair should be abundant 
and smooth, and should lie close to the skin. Such a coat affords 
the most protection and adds to the attractiveness of appear- 
ance. 

The quality of a fat-type hog is determined by the refine- 
ment of the head, hair, and bone, smoothness of finish, and free- 




Fig. 90. Finished Barrows. 

Duroc-Jersey barrows that won Grand Championship on pen of five 
barrows at the 1917 National Feeders' and Breeders' Show, Ft. Worth, Tex. 
Average weight, 386 pounds; age, 12 months. Bred, fed, and exhibited by 
the Texas A. & M. College. Note the excellent heads, arched backs, broad 
tops, high finish, and uniformity of these hogs. 

dom from wrinkles and seams. The hog with quality has a 
clean-cut, well-bred appearance that pleases not only the pro- 
ducer and hog fancier, but also the butcher, because such a hog 
yields a neat, tidy carcass that attracts buyers, and the cuts of 
meat show a refined texture that is not to be found in the cuts 
from a coarse, rough hog. 

The proper finish of a lard-type hog is secured by a high 
degree of fattening, but the feeding should not be continued 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 289 

long enough to give the hog a soft, flabby covering. When 
handled along the back, below the shoulders, and at the lower 
border of the hams, the fleshing should be rather firm instead 
of soft as is often the case, especially in some breeds. Some hogs 
become lumpy in their covering of fat, which is objectionable. 
When the fattening has proceeded far enough to round out the 
lines of the animal and give him a smooth, springy, mellow 
covering of flesh, he is in just the right condition to meet with 
most favor from the butcher. 

The temperament of the fat-type hog is quite different from 
that of the bacon hog, being less active and more inclined to 
quietness, lying down, and the taking on of fat. Ideas as to 
what is most desirable in the temperament of this type of swine 
are tending somewhat away from the one formerly in favor, 
namely, that a hog should eat and lie down, and that a minimum 
of exercise is conducive to greatest economy in pork production. 
Many producers are now coming to believe that better results 
are secured if the hog is disposed by temperament to take con- 
siderable exercise, especially during the growing period; they are 
selecting more active hogs for breeding, and are managing their 
young stock in such a way as to induce them to take a large 
amount of exercise. This results in growthy pigs of robust 
constitution and lessens the danger of disease. Exercise also 
develops the muscles and strengthens the pasterns and legs. 
Notwithstanding this present-day tendency to select a more 
active hog than in the past, there must always be considerable 
difference between the fat tjrpe and bacon type in this respect, 
the former being more quiet, slower in movements, and having 
much greater natural aptitude to fatten. 

The weight for age is an important consideration because 
it is a measure of the profit-making ability of the hog. Pigs 
weighing over 150 pounds, fattened for the market, should have 
at least one pound of weight for every day of their age. On this 
basis, a pig six months old should weigh not less than 180 pounds. 
It is not unreasonable to fix the standard of weight for fat hogs 
six months old at 200 pounds; nine months, 300 pounds; twelve 
months, 400 pounds. Hogs are matured at about twenty-four 
months of age. Mature boars in high condition should weigh 
800 pounds or over; sows, 600 pounds or over. The average 
weight of hogs received at the large markets at the present time 
is about 225 pounds. Hog growers are agreed that weights 
from 200 to 275 pounds for market hogs are most profitable. 



CHAPTER XXII. 
THE BACON-TYPE HOG. 

The bacon hog presents some very marked differences 
when compared with the lard hog in form, fleshing, and tem- 
perament. These differences are very necessary because the 
bacon hog yields a product that is quite different from that of 
the fat or lard hog. The foremost countries in bacon production 
are England, Denmark, and Canada, the first mentioned con- 
suming the surplus production of the other two. It is a superior 
product to that with which the American public is furnished, 
being the finest that is produced. American bacon is the belly 
meat of the lighter and thinner hogs of the lard type, but English 
bacon is supplied by a hog the entire side of which is suitable 
for bacon. Denmark and Canada ship bacon to England in 
the form of what is called the "Wiltshire" side. A Wiltshire 
side represents half the carcass of the hog, minus the head and 
legs. The neck, shoulder, back, loin, side, belly, and ham are 
included, and all of these parts are retailed as bacon except the 
ham and shoulder. 

The best bacon contains a relatively large amount of lean 
meat and small amount of fat. The price charged for bacon 
at wholesale or retail is very largely regulated by these features, 
a cheap slab of bacon always being characterized by greater 
thickness, little lean, and much fat. The production of high- 
quality bacon therefore necessitates a different kind of hog than 
the lard hog, a hog disposed to be muscular and active, but not 
a hog that fattens readily. The production of the best bacon 
also necessitates feeding this hog on such feeds as will furnish 
nitrogenous or muscle-building materials in abundance, the 
carbonaceous or fat-forming elements of the ration being supplied 
in much less amount than would be advisable if lard hogs were 
being fed. This fact explains why but few bacon hogs are found 
in the combelt, and also why the United States is able to pro- 
duce the lard hog at lower cost than he can be produced else- 
where. Whereas corn plays a large part in the production of 
lard-type swine for the market, the bacon hog is fed on such 
feeds as peas, barley, and skim milk, which are much better 

290 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 291 

suited to bacon production than is com, because they contain 
a larger percentage of protein. 

It is important that the producer of bacon hogs turn them 
off to market at that period in their development when the 
character of the flesh will be nearest the bacon ideal. To be 
more explicit, if the hog is marketed too young its flesh will be 
watery and flabby, whereas further feeding and more age result 
in a more desirable carcass. Young pigs have a very strong 
tendency to utilize their feed for growth, and as they become 
older and are more matured they fatten much more readily. It 
is for this reason that the best bacon comes from hogs within 
certain limits of weight. Experience has shown that a weight 
of 160 pounds is the minimum weight at which to market a 
bacon hog and that the upper limit is 220 pounds. These 
figures represent the extremes; the best bacon carcasses are from 
hogs that weighed 175 to 190 pounds. This does not mean that 
the bacon hog reaches maturity at a weight of 190 or 220 pounds, 
or that it is desirable that he should do so. The matured weight 
for boars in good flesh should be not less than 700 pounds, and 
for sows not less than 500 pounds. 

When the carcass of a bacon hog is split down the back, 
the layer of fat along the spine and back should be not less than 
one inch or more than one and one-half inches in thickness, 
and it should be as uniform in thickness as possible from one 
end to the other. The production of the best Wiltshire sides 
is possible only from hogs that are long from shoulder to ham, 
light and smooth in the shoulder, neck, and jowl, and very 
straight and trim along the belly. 

When thinking of a bacon hog we usually have in mind 
such a hog as the market wants, in other words, a hog suitable 
for slaughtering and cutting up into Wiltshire sides. Also, 
from what has been said of the importance of certain weight 
requirements, it is at once apparent that boars and breeding 
sows are not desired by the packer. If, however, their form, 
quality, and temperament are such as will cause them to trans- 
mit to their pigs the characteristics which are necessary in order 
that these pigs may be fed out successfully for the bacon market, 
then the boar and sow are said to possess bacon type. In judg- 
ing breeding stock, certain allowances must therefore be made 
and certain points must be emphasized which do not concern us 
in judging bacon hogs for slaughter. The same general prin- 
ciples and the same general type apply in both cases, but the 



292 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



judge must emphasize certain points that are peculiar and es- 
sential in each. 

The form of the bacon hog is strikingly different from that 
of the lard hog. There is much less thickness and depth of 
body, greater length of leg, a lighter shoulder, neck, and jowl, 
and greater length from snout to tail, especially from shoulder 
to ham. From the snout to the rear border of the shoulder the 
hog should be comparatively short, this being the low-priced 
end of the carcass. There is considerable difference between 
the retail prices received for the front and hind ends of the Wilt- 
shire side. Length of side from shoulder to ham and length 



\ fTIX 







Fig. 91. Fancy Market Bacon Pig. 



of ham from front to rear are of very great importance, but it 
is a mistake to make everything else secondary in importance 
to length; length should not be carried to the greatest possible 
extreme. The hog should have enough depth and width of 
body to give him a strong constitution in a well-developed chest 
and middle. This applies both to the market hog and the breed- 
ing animal. There should be as much depth of body in front 
as behind, and as much width at one point as another — in other 
words, the hog should be symmetrical or balanced in his con- 
formation. Great smoothness from one end to the other is a 
prime essential, and smoothness must be secured without the 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 293 

assistance of very much outside fat, such as greatly assists in 
giving smoothness to the lard hog. 

Proper quality in a market bacon hog is very important 
because a rough or coarse appearance detracts much from the 
price, and because it is desired that the flesh be fine in texture. 
In both market hogs and breeding stock, a fine, smooth coat 
of hair denotes quality. Well-developed wrinkles or seams in 
the skin indicate coarse-grained flesh, and injure the appearance 
of the finished product. The snout, face, jowl, and ear should 
show refinement yet not to an extreme that indicates lack of 
vigor and feeding qualities. The bone should be flinty and 
smooth, rather than porous and rough. Coarse bone is very 
objectionable because it indicates hard feeding qualities and 
slow maturity. The butcher prefers a fine-boned hog, but the 
breeder wants the boar to stand on heavy, clean bone covered 
with skin that shows no coarseness. The brood sow should 
have finer bone than the boar, but it should be in every way 
proportionate to her weight, plus the added weight resulting 
from pregnancy. 

Proper condition for a market bacon hog is a feature re- 
quiring considerable practice in judging. There is danger of 
too high a degree of fatness, even though the live weight be 
within the limits that have been mentioned. People who live 
in the cornbelt experience some difficulty in accepting a properly 
finished market bacon hog as such when first taking up a study 
of this type. To them the hog looks considerably underdone. 
The indications of the proper degree of fatness are difficult to 
describe. The hog has a well-fed, thrifty appearance, but not 
a finished look comparable to that of the properly finished lard 
hog. The flesh is firm and the hog is reasonably well filled out. 
Soft flesh at the lower part of the hams, at the lower border of 
the shoulder, or on the jowl, is undesirable because it indicates 
an over-fat condition and an uneven distribution of the fat. 
Smoothness and firmness of fieshing are decidedly essential. 

The style of the bacon hog should be marked. He should 
be very active, thus indicating a full muscular development. 
He should walk without apparent effort. A writhing move- 
ment when walking is taken as an indication of weakness in 
muscling along the back and loin. 

The head varies in shape a great deal, depending to a large 
extent upon the breed, but there is also much variation between 
individuals belonging to the same breed. Length of snout varies 



294 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

with the breed. A long snout is very often associated with a 
narrow chest, and a very short snout often goes with a heavy 
jowl and neck. The face should be broad, and the poll should 
be broad also and come well forward, these being indications 
of constitutional vigor and feeding qualities. Large, prominent, 
bright eyes indicate health and constitution. The jowl has 
very little market value. A heavy, fat jowl denotes too strong 
a fattening tendency for a bacon animal. Good width across 
the jowl is desirable, but it should be very trim and neat. Size 
and carriage of the ear vary according to the breed. A large 
ear does not indicate lack of quality provided it is fine or thin. 
Thick, coarse ears denote a thick, coarse skin, which, in turn, 
denotes coarse-grained flesh. 

The neck, while not a valuable part of the carcass, is im- 
portant as indicating constitution and feeding qualities. A 
long, thin neck is an indication of deficient constitution and low 
feeding qualities; while a short, thick neck, with a crest of fat 
on top will result in a side of bacon that is too heavy at the 
fore end, which is the cheap end of the side. Moderate length 
and width of neck are wanted. It is to be expected that mature 
boars will have heavier necks than sows or barrows. 

The shoulders should be light and set in the body smoothly. 
They should be deep from top to bottom, but not wide from 
front to rear, and as one looks down on the top of the hog, they 
should show no greater fullness than the back and loin. Shoul- 
ders that have more width from side to side than the rest of 
the hog are objectionable, but nevertheless should be given 
preference over a narrow chest in a breeding animal. 

The breast should be wide and carry well down between 
the fore legs and straight out in front to join the lower border 
of the neck, thus insuring a large chest capacity. 

The front legs should be rather long, but not extremely so, 
straight, strong, with upright pasterns, and carrying the weight 
full on the toes. 

A back of moderate width, very slightly arched, and rounded 
over the top from side to side represents correct bacon-type 
development in this valuable part of the carcass. A sagging 
back or a decidedly arched back is an evidence of weak muscling 
and consequently of a lack of lean meat along the top where the 
highest-priced bacon is found. The top of the hog should show 
a slight arch from head to tail as viewed from the side, the highest 
point being over the loin. A wide, flat back denotes a high degree 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 295 

of fatness such as is wanted in the fat-hog carcass, but not in 
the carcass of a bacon hog. A very narrow back is an indication 
of a lack of flesh or lean meat. 

The loin furnishes the most valuable part of the side of 
bacon and therefore shourd be strongly developed. It should 
have the same width and form as the back. From shoulder 
to hindquarter the top of the hog should exhibit a uniform 
width, uniform arch, and uniform fleshing. 

A side that is flat, straight, and deep, with a great deal 
of length, and carrying a firm, smooth covering of flesh is de- 
manded. The packer likes as long a side as can be had, but 
the breeder must avoid extreme length because such hogs incline 




Fig. 92. Correct Bacon Type. 

to be narrow and shallow bodied. They lack constitution and 
feeding qualities to such an extent that they do not make eco- 
nomical gains on feed. The side of the bacon hog constitutes 
the most important consideration in judging either breeding 
or market animals. Score cards for bacon hogs allow more 
points to the side than to any other part of the animal. When 
the hog is standing, a straight-edge laid against his side, either 
vertically or horizontally, should touch every point beneath 
it. There should be no signs of seams or wrinkles, but a 
smooth development everywhere. The side should also be 
firm in fleshing, without any softness just behind the shoulder 
or elsewhere. 



296 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The flank is important because a high flank injures the 
appearance of the carcass, necessitates more trimming in order 
to give evenness to the lower border of the side of bacon, and 
also is an indication that the belly meat is too thin. When the 
flank is carried down well, the flesh is usually carried well down 
on the ham, the belly meat is thick and fleshy, and the develop- 
ment of the side is made more uniform in depth and thickness. 

The belly should be straight, trim, firm, thick, and free 
from flabbiness. This part yields good bacon, but it is not 
so high priced as that from the loin and back. 

The rump should not be broad and flat, which indicates 
too much fat, but should have the same width as the rest of 
the top and should be rounding from side to side across the 
top, the same as the back and loin. It should be long also, and 
should round slightly toward the tail, but should not be droop- 
ing with the tail set low. 

A heavy, bulging ham is not an indication of correct bacon 
type. Such hams must have a great deal of fat trimmed off them 
in preparing the side of bacon for the market. The ham of the 
bacon hog should taper toward the hock and should be smooth 
and firm, especially at the lower part where flabbiness is likely 
to occur. The flesh should carry well around the bone, inside 
as well as outside, and should not taper off too suddenly below, 
but let down well toward the hocks. The ham of the bacon 
hog is often called the gammon. 

The hind legs should be straight and strong, the pasterns 
upright, and the weight carried full on the toes. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

THE HOG CARCASS. 

A comparative study of the importance of the various kinds 
of meat in American, Enghsh, French, and German dietaries 
discloses the fact that civiHzation is greatly dependent upon 
the hog and its products. The following table gives the annual 
per capita consumption of the various kinds of meat in the four 
countries mentioned, and shows the large contribution of the 
hog to the meat supply : 



Kind of meat 


United States 
(1918) 


United 

Kingdom 

(average 

1906-1908) 


Germany* 

(1913) 


France* 

(1904) 


Beef 


Pounds 

78.40 

7.50 

5.30 

102.30 


Pounds 

56.00 

4.00 

26.00 

33.00 


Pounds 
31.35 

7.25 

1.90 

71,30 


Pounds 
37.00 


Veal 


8.00 


Mutton and lamb . . . 
Pork, including lard . 


9.00 
26.00 


Total 


193.50 


119.00 


111.80 


80.00 



*In addition to the above, the consumption of horse flesh amounts to 
about 1 pound per capita in France, and in Germany 1.9 pounds of goat, 
horse, and dog meat is consumed per capita. 

The British are well known to be partial to beef in their 
meat dietary, and the Germans to pork, and this is amply sub- 
stantiated by the table; nevertheless it is seen that the people 
of the United States consume more beef than the British and 
more pork than the Germans. The British, however, consume 
more mutton per capita than any other nationality, and the 
French come first with veal. The figures show that the con- 
sumption of pork, as compared with the consumption of beef, 
is greater than might be supposed. Americans and Germans 
consume more pork than beef, but the table shows a different 
proportion for the English and French. These variations may 
be due to differences in the way appetites have been cultivated 
in the various countries, or to differences in the quantities of 
pork produced and the cost of it. 

In the combined slaughter of beef, mutton, and pork in 
the United States, beef constituted 48 per cent, of the total in 

297 



298 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

1909, mutton and lamb constituted only 3,6 per cent., and pork 
constituted 48.4 per cent. These proportions are practically 
the same as those recorded for the year 1900. Figures for 1914 
show that approximately 54 per cent, of the total dressed weight 
of meat handled by wholesale slaughtering and meat packing 
establishments consisted of pork, 38 per cent, of beef, 6 per cent, 
of mutton and lamb, and 2 per cent, of veal. 

The type of hogs found in the several countries varies con- 
siderably. In the United States the fat or lard type is produced 
almost exclusively, this being particularly true of the cornbelt. 
The stock yards of this country receive practically no bacon 
hogs; the St. Paul market is something of an exception, although 
the number received there is comparatively small. We shall. 




Fig. 93. The Hog Hoist. 

therefore, give more attention to the fat carcass than to the 
bacon carcass. 

Slaughtering and dressing. — When the hog enters the 
packing house, and this applies to both the fat hog and the bacon 
hog, he passes rapidly through the operations of (1) bleeding, 
(2) scalding, (3) scraping, (4) singeing, (5) removal of head, (6) dis- 
emboweling, (7) splitting, (8) removal of leaf fat and kidneys, (9) 
facing hams, (10) dry room (four hours), and (11) cooling. This 
is known as the "packer" style of dressing. The legs, feet, and 
jowl are left as part of the carcass. An exception is made in 
the case of pigs and some light hogs intended for the fresh pork 
trade, these being "shipper" dressed, which means that the 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 299 

head is left on, the leaf fat and kidneys in, the hams not faced, 
and the backbone not split. Some variation also occurs in the 
manner of splitting the carcass. All dressed hogs are cut open 
along the underline and through the aitch bone and brisket, 
but the best heavy carcasses, called loin carcasses, are split 
through the center of the backbone, while the inferior heavy 
carcasses, called packing carcasses, are sometimes split on one 
side of the backbone. Bacon carcasses are usually cut with a 
knife on each side of the backbone and then split on one side 
and the backbone taken out, making sides suitable for the Eng- 
lish bacon cuts. 




Fig. 94. Dressing Hogs. 

The ofiFal and the dressing percentage. — The parts which 
the hog loses in dressing are the blood, hair, head, viscera, leaf 
fat, kidneys, and ham facings. The dressing percentage is 
determined in the same manner as with cattle and sheep. Hogs 
dressed packer style range in dressing percentage from 68 to 80 
per cent., and average about 75 per cent. Hogs dressed shipper 
style have a dressing percentage about 8 per cent, higher than 
those dressed packer style, the difference being due to the head, 
leaf fat, kidneys, and ham facings, which are not removed in 
the shipper style of dressing. Hogs dressed shipper style easily 
dress 83 to 85 per cent. Some hogs in the carcass contests at 
the International Live Stock Show have dressed as high as 89, 
89.3, and 89.6; but these were hogs of show-yard quality weigh- 
ing 417, 429, and 520 pounds respectively, they had been with- 



300 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



out feed or water for more than twenty-four hours prior to kill- 
ing, and were dressed shipper style. The chief factors deter- 
mining the dressing percentage of a hog are fatness and paunchi- 
ness, of which the former is by far the more important. 

The average live weight of hogs slaughtered in the United 
States in 1899 was 218 pounds, the average dressed weight was 
170 pounds, and the average dressing percentage was 78. In 
1904, the live weight was 213 pounds, the dressed weight was 
163 pounds, and the dressing percentage was 76.5. In 1909, 
the corresponding figures were 202 pounds, 154 pounds, and 




Fig. 95. A View of the Pork Coolers 

76.2 per cent.; and in 1914 they were 211 pounds, 159 pounds, 
and 75.3 per cent. 

The wholesale trade in pork. — Only about one or two per 

cent, of the hogs slaughtered by the large packing houses are 
sold as whole carcasses. About three-fourths of the whole- 
sale trade in pork consists of various cured meats and fresh 
cuts, the remainder consisting principally of lard and a small 
percentage of sausage and canned meats. Only about twenty 
per cent, of the domestic trade and five per cent, of the export 
trade in pork products, other than lard, consists of fresh meat. 

The United States Census of 1910 reported the total value 
of the products of slaughtering and meat packing in the United 
States to be $1,631,189,179. The following list of these products 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 301 

is of interest as indicating the importance of pork and the 
relative value of cured pork and cured beef: 

Product Per cent, of 

total value 
Fresh meat: 

Beef 25.83 

Veal 1 . 61 

Mutton, lamb, goat, kid 4 . 58 

Pork 13 . 87 

Cured meat: 

Beef 88 

Pork 24.13 

Canned goods 1 . 62 

Sausage 4.18 

Lard 7.38 

Lard compounds and substitutes 2 . 03 

Oleooil 73 

Other oils 25 

Tallow and oleo stock 85 

Stearin 17 

Oleomargarine 54 

All other products 11.35 



100.00 



The Fat or Lard-Hog Carcass. 



Pl, Wholesale cuts. — After the carcass has been thoroughly 
chilled it is cut up into shoulders, hams, fat backs, loins, spare 
ribs, and belly. These wholesale cuts are shown in the drawings 
which accompany this chapter. 

The part labeled "fat back" is a clear layer of external fat 
containing no lean meat. Studies of the carcasses of cattle 
and sheep disclose the fact that it is easily possible to feed a 
steer or a wether too long, and thus make the animal too fat 
to suit the consumer. One-half to three-fourths of an inch of 
external fat is all that is wanted on the carcasses of cattle, and 
for mutton and lamb the desired thickness is proportionate to 
the requirements for cattle. With fat hogs we find an entirely 
different state of affairs, for the packer wants a very thick layer 
of external fat over the top of the hog. This heavy layer of 
fat constitutes a separate cut known as the fat back, which may 
be rendered into lard, or dry salted and sold as a dry-salt cut. 
When manufactured into lard they render 85 to 88 per cent. 
About one-half of them are sold as a dry-salt cut for which a 
demand exists in the South and in Europe. Lard is far more 
valuable than tallow, hence the difference in the packer's attitude 
toward very heavy fatness in the lard hog as compared with a 
similar degree of fatness in cattle or sheep. 



302 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The belly contains streaks of lean and is suitable for a 
"breakfast bacon belly" if the cut is from a light-weight hog. 
If the hog is heavy, the belly cut is dry salted or pickled and 
sold as a "dry-salt belly" or as a "sweet-pickle belly," as the 
case may be. 

The following table gives the weights of the various whole- 
sale cuts of pork, the per cent, of live weight included in each 
cut, the wholesale prices per pound, and the total wholesale 
price of each cut. This table was compiled from unpublished 




Fig. 96. Wholesale Cuts of Pork. 

English Cuts. — A, Long-cut ham; B, long side or middle. 

American Cuts. — 1, Ham; 2, loin; 3, belly; 4, picnic butt; 5, Boston butt; 
6, jowl; 7, hock; 8, fat back; 9, clear plate; 2 and 8, back; 2, 3, and 8, side; 
4 and 7, picnic shoulder; 5 and 9, shoulder butt; 8 and 9, long fat back; 4, 5, 7, 
and 9, rough shoulder. 

data of a slaughtering and cutting test conducted by J. M. 
Evvard of the Iowa Station, in cooperation with Sulzberger & 
Sons' Company of Chicago. The test included 24 Duroc- Jersey 
hogs which averaged 300 pounds live weight and which dressed 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



303 



75.19 per cent. If the heads and leaf fat are included, the 
dressing yield was 81.95 per cent. The following table repre- 
sents averages of the 24 hogs. 

From carcass of hog having live weight of 300 pounds. 



Wholesale cuts 


Weights 
of cuts 


Per cent, of 
live weight 


Wholesale 

price per 

pound 


Total value 
of cut 


Hams 

Shoulders 

Bellies (dry salt) .... 
Fat backs 


Pounds 

36.67 . 

45.46 

56.70 

31.04 

1.58 

26.92 

8.45 

8.35 

17.77 

12.95 


12.22 

15.15 

18.90 

10.35 

.52 

8.97 

2.82 

2.78 

5.92 

4.32 


Cents 
16.5 
12 
14 
11 
10 
15 

5.5 
11.25 
10 

6.5 


$6.05 
5.46 
7.94 
3.41 


Spare ribs 


.16 


Loins 

Miscellaneous 

Leaf fat 


4.03 
.46 
.94 


Cutting fat . . . 


1.78 


Head 


.84 






Total carcass . . . 


245.89 


81.95 


12.6 


$31.07 



Note. — The above table includes both sides of the carcass. The shoulder 
cut is a rough shoulder, including- the jowl. "Miscellaneous" includes lean 
trimmings, tail, neckbones, and rough feet. "Cutting fat" includes small fat 
trimmings from the hams, fat backs, bellies, and other cuts. It is rendered 
into lard. 

High-priced and low-priced cuts. — There is not much 
variation in the wholesale price of the various cuts of pork — 
much less variation than occurs in the wholesale price of the 
various cuts of beef, mutton, or lamb. The rib and loin cuts 
of the beef carcass sell far above the other cuts, and the rib and 
loin development, together with the development of the round, 
practically determine the value of the beef carcass. In the 
fat-hog carcass, values are rather evenly distributed, although 
the ham may be said to be the most valuable part of the hog. 
A study of the swine carcass emphasizes the importance of 
good development in all parts of the hog, and especially is this 
true of the back, loin, and hams. The top of the hog and the 
hams hold most of the value of the carcass, but the shoulder 
and belly are almost equally valuable. 

Qualifications of a good carcass. — The value of the fat- 
hog carcass depends upon shape, finish, quality, and weight. 
These various factors will now be discussed. 

1. Shape. — The shape desired is one combining great 
width of side and back in proportion to length of body, straight, 
even lines, and well-filled hams and shoulders. A neat, trim 



304 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



carcass is wanted that is free from prominence on the underline. 
Hence, barrows are always preferred to sows because sows carry 
more cheap belly meat, this being expecially true of sows that 
have had several litters of pigs. Such sows are called "seedy," 
and they bring a lower price than neat, trim animals that are 
well tucked up along the belly. The accompanying drawings 
show the importance of the underline in determining the value 
of the side cut from a hog. The trimming from a seedy sow 
goes to the rendering tank and is made into a cheap grade of lard. 




Side from 
high -flanked hog 




Fig. 97. Effect of Underline on Trimming of Side. 

T, trimming. 

2. Finish. — This is indicated by the depth and evenness 
of fat covering the carcass, especially along the back and over 
the sides; also by the amount and quality of leaf fat. The leaf 
is the internal fat and includes the kidney fat and extends down 
to the flanks and "skirt" or diaphragm. It is important that 
the fat be white and firm. Packers like hogs well fattened be- 
cause this means a higher yield of lard and a higher dressing 
percentage. As a rule, the heavier the hog the more fat he 
carries, because the nearer an animal approaches maturity the 
more easily he takes on fat. This is shown by the following 
figures giving the percentage of yields and percentage of parts 
of carcasses of swine of different live weights. The fat backs 
were all rendered into lard. 



Number of 

hogs 
slaughtered 



Average 

live 
weight 



Side 
meat 



Hams 



Shoulder 
cuts 



Lard 



Total 
yield 



Figures from Boore & Company, Chicago. 



2107 

1316 

1215 

907 



Pounds 
360 
302 
234 
204 



Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


37.10 


13.31 


9.62 


16.00 


36.17 


13.33 


9.05 


15.45 


36.10 


13.20 


11.05 


11.96 


34.60 


13.70 


10.40 


11.55 



Per cent. 
76.03 
74.50 
72.31 
70.25 



Figures from Sinclair Packing Company, Cedar Rapids. 



2946 


293 


37.94 


12.74 


9.10 


15.09 


74.87 


4067 


236 


36.86 


13.52 


6.58 


15.04 


72.00 


1102 


232 


37.76 


13.38 


8.42 


14.21 


73.77 


1615 


232 


38.02 


13.29 


8.14 


13.89 


73.34 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



305 



The above figures do not include the small cuttings, ten- 
derloins, tails, pig's feet, cheek meat, etc., which are practically- 
alike for hogs within the weight limits mentioned above. The 
figures show a marked increase in the percentage of lard yield 
as the hog matures. 

That the hog is by nature disposed to take on more fat 
than any of the other domestic animals is shown by the follow- 
ing table of analyses made at the Rothamsted (England) Ex- 
periment Station. After fasting from eighteen to twenty-four 
hours the animals were killed and the entire bodies analysed. 



Animal 


Age 


Live 
weight 


Protein 


Fat 


Mineral 
matter 

(ash) 


Total 
dry 
sub- 
stance 


Water 


Contents 
of stom- 
ach and 
intestines 
—moist 


Fat pig . . 




Lbs. 

185 

127 

1416 

84 
258 


Per 

cent. 
10.9 
12.2 
14.5 
12.3 
15.2 


Per 

cent. 
42 2 
35 6 
30 1 

28.5 
14.8 


Per 
cent. 
1.65 
2.81 
3.92 
2.94 
3.80 


Per 
cent. 
54.7 
50.6 
48.5 
43.7 
33.8 


Per 
cent. 
41.3 
43.4 

45.5 
47.8 
63.0 


Per 
cent. 
3.97 


Fat sheep 

Fat ox 

Fat lamb 

Fat calf 


15 mo. 

4yrs. 

6 mo. 

8-9wks 


6.02 
5.98 
8.54 
3.17 



These figures show why the corn crop has formed a closer 
alliance with hogs than with any other of our domestic animals. 
The hog requires more fattening food than other animals because 
he is naturally disposed to take on a very high degree of fatness, 
and, as has been mentioned, hog fat is far more valuable than 
the fat of cattle or sheep. Packers desire a covering of outside 
fat on the carcass of a lard hog that measures from two to six 
inches in thickness, the requirements varying according to the 
weight of the carcass. 

Armour & Company's booklet, entitled "Progressive Hog 
Raising," by E. R. Gentry, contains the following comparison 
of the merits of a well-fed hog and a poorly fed one : 

"Let us take two hogs representing these different grades. 
One has had good care and has been fed on corn properly supple- 
mented with good forage and high protein feeds. The other 
has been 'grassed along,' getting a little slop now and then 
and otherwise allowed to shift for himself. Both are killed and 
hung in the cooler to chill and harden for forty-eight hours. 
At the end of this time they come out to be cut up. The corn- 
fed hog is firm, it cuts easily with one stroke of the cleaver or 
one draw of the knife. There is a good layer of pure white fat 



306 Types and Makket Classes of Live Stock 

on the back. The loin cuts out shapely and the flesh is pink 
and fine grained. The ham has the proper depth of fat and 
flesh. The belly is the right thickness and properly streaked 
with lean. It will make high-grade bacon. It is so with all 
the other cuts. This is a class of hog that makes prime cuts, 
and so it is a prime hog on the hoof. 

"What is the case with the other hog? It comes out of 
the cooler as soft and flabby as when it went in. It might be 
left in for weeks and still it would not harden. To break such 
a carcass up into saleable cuts is next to impossible. It can 
only be haggled apart. There is a tough rind over the loin and 
a sheet of gristly fat. After the butcher manages to get the 
loin out, there is no layer of good white fat on it and the flesh 
is yellowish and stringy. The belly makes tough, inferior bacon. 
These cuts cannot be properly cured, as they will shrink away. 
Even the ham, when smoked, presents a dried-up, unattractive 
appearance on the market. The result is that the cuts must 
either be sold at a low price or go to the sausage room or the 
lard tank. It is not difficult to understand why this hog grades 
common to inferior." 

3. Quality. — A carcass is said to have quality when the 
outlines are even and smooth, the head and shanks fine, the 
flesh firm, bright, and smooth grained, the fat white and evenly 
distributed over the carcass, and the skin smooth, thin, mel- 
low, and free from wrinkles, blotches, or bruises. Coarse or 
extremely large shoulders, neck, and jowls show lack of quality 
and are indications of stagginess, and the carcasses of seedy 
sows grade low because of their coarse quality. Barrows and 
smooth, clear sows yield carcasses of the best quality. 

4. Weight. — While it is true that packers find uses for 
carcasses of all weights ranging from 20 to 400 pounds, the 
most valuable carcasses are those weighing 160 to 200 pounds, 
provided the carcass is at the same time one of good shape, 
finish, and quality. Such carcasses come from hogs with a 
live weight of 200 to 260 pounds. Carcasses weighing 160 to 
200 pounds yield loins of the proper size and best quality. The 
general statement may also be made that all carcasses should 
weigh heavy for their size, thus insuring a high degree of finish 
or fatness. 

Bacon Carcasses. 
The packing house classes the heavier and fatter carcasses 
as lard hog carcasses, while the lighter, thinner ones are cut up 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



307 



into the bacon or English cuts, so called because they are suitable 
for the English trade. The principal English cuts are Wiltshire 
sides, Cumberland sides, and long-cut hams. These cuts are 
also sold under several other names depending on some technical 
variations in the manner of preparing the side for the retail 
trade. The Wiltshire side comprises the entire side (half the 
hog), minus the head, feet, shoulder blade, and hip bone. The 




Fig. 98. Fat and Bacon Carcasses Compared. 

Note the difference in size, and especially the difference in fatness, between 
the fat carcass on the left and the bacon carcass on the right. 

belly is trimmed smooth and even. These sides average 40 to 
70 pounds and are selected especially for thickness of lean meat 
and a light, even covering of fat from 1 to 2 inches thick, not 
exceeding 13^ inches in the best grades. They are made ex- 
clusively from choice, lean bacon hogs. The best of these hogs 
weigh 175 to 190 pounds. The drawings which accompany 



308 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

this chapter show a bacon side and indicate its division into the 
long-cut ham and the long-cut middle or Cumberland. 

Classification of Carcasses. 

The classification and grading of hog carcasses is based on 
the uses to which they are adapted, or in other words, it is based 
on the products into which they can be converted. Therefore 
the shape, finish, quality, and weight determine where the car- 
cass will classify and grade. The generally recognized classes 
and grades* and their respective weights are as follows: 

Smooth Heavy, or Heavy Loin Carcasses 240 — -320 lb 

Butcher, or Light Loin Carcasses 160^240 lb 

f Heavy , 240—400 lb 

Packing Hog Carcasses . ■ . ■{ Medium 200 — 240 lb 

I Light 100—200 lb 

Choice 120—160 lb 

Bacon Carcasses \ Good 110 — 170 lb 

[ Common 90—110 lb 

Shippers 100—200 lb 

Pigs 20—100 lb 

Smooth heavy, or heavy loin carcasses. — These are from 
prime, smooth hogs, either barrows or good clear (not seedy) 
sows. These carcasses weigh 240 to 320 pounds and have four 
to six inches of fat on the back. The flesh and fat must be 
deep, firm, and even, the flesh bright colored, the fat white, 
and the bones not coarse. As the name indicates, such car- 
casses are especially suitable for making heavy loins, the re- 
mainder of the side being made into a heavy fat back and dry- 
salt belly. These carcasses yield a very heavy ham. The 
per cent, of such carcasses is a very small part of the general 
supply. 

Butcher, or light loin carcasses. — A large proportion of 
the fresh pork sold in retail markets is pork loins, which are 
cut into chops and roasts, and light loin carcasses are so named 
because these cuts can be obtained from them to best advantage. 
To yield loins of the proper size and quality, a hog carcass should 
weigh about 160 to 240 pounds and have the same shape, smooth- 
ness, and general quality previously described. Thick, firm 
flesh, smooth, soft skin, and solid, white fat are especially im- 
portant. The covering of fat on the back should be two to 
four inches. Barrows and smooth clear sows furnish carcasses 
of this class. The weights most preferred are 160 to 200 pounds 
The carcass is cut up into the regular American or fat-hog cuts. 

*I11. BuL147. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 309 

Packing hog carcasses.— About one-half of the carcasses 
in Chicago packing houses are of this class. They are carcasses 
of mixed hogs of all weights, which are too coarse in quality, 
rough in shape, and uneven in finish, to be well adapted for 
fresh pork products or smoked meats and are therefore prin- 
cipally packed in such form as mess pork and dry-salt meats. 
The hams are sweet pickled and the shoulders made into picnics 
and Boston butts. The general statement may be made that 
packing carcasses are inferior carcasses weighing 100 pounds or 
more which are left after the best carcasses have been sorted 
out. They are graded heavy, medium, and light according to 
weight. 

Heavy packing carcasses. — These are the carcasses of 
rough and seedy sows, coarse barrows, boars, and stags aver- 
aging 240 to 400 pounds. Common defects of this grade are 
thick, rough, and wrinkled skin, dark-colored and coarse-grained 
flesh, soft, oily fat, large bones, and carcass bruises. 

Medium packing carcasses. — The only important dis- 
tinction between this grade and the preceding one is weight. 
These carcasses weigh 200 to 240 pounds. They are inferior 
to butcher carcasses in shape, finish, and quality. 

Light packing carcasses. — These weigh 100 to 200 pounds. 
They are too deficient in shape, quality, and finish to be classi- 
fied as either bacon, butcher, or shipper carcasses. This grade 
comes mostly from light sows. 

Mess pork, which is made from packing hog carcasses, is 
a simple method of packing cheap pork and was much used in 
the early days of the packing industry. It is prepared by cut- 
ting the side into strips about six inches wide and packing in 
salt brine in tight barrels (18x29 inches) at 200 pounds net 
weight of cured pork per barrel or 355 pounds gross. It is 
shipped principally to the Southern States, northern lumber 
camps, and South America. Dry-salt meats, the other com- 
mon product of packing carcasses, are heavy sides, bellies, 
shoulders, fat backs, and jowls cured in dry salt, pumped with 
brine, and shipped in coarse salt. They are usually shipped 
loose, but sometimes are put up in boxes containing 25 to 500 
pounds. 

Bacon carcasses. — These are suitable for sugar-cured, 
breakfast-bacon bellies and English meats. Such carcasses 
have long, deep, smooth sides with a light, even covering of fat. 
The hams should be full, but lean, and the shoulders light and 



310 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

smooth. The flesh must be firm and not "watery," the fat 
solid, and the carcass very smooth. These carcasses weigh 90 
to 170 pounds. The most desirable weights are 120 to 150 
pounds. Only a small percentage of Chicago carcasses are of 
this class. 

Choice bacon carcasses. — The depth of back fat is from 
13^ to 2 inches. It must not vary more than 3^ to ^ of an 
inch over the back and shoulders. Only carcasses of barrows 
weighing 120 to 160 pounds grade here as a rule. 

Good bacon carcasses. — These lack slightly in the essen- 
tial points of the preceding grade. The thickness of back fat 
must be 1 to 23^ inches. The carcasses range in weight from 
110 to 170 pounds and come not only from barrows but also 
from smooth, clear sows. 

Common bacon carcasses. — These are decidedly lacking 
in the prime essentials of the class. They are usually light, 
unfinished carcasses from "skippy" or "skinny" hogs. 

Shippers. — These are similar to butcher hog carcasses in 
shape and quality, but are lighter in weight and generally not 
so highly finished. Compared with bacon carcasses they are 
shorter and thicker bodied, with a deeper and less even covering 
of fat, heavier jowls, and are younger for their weights. Their 
chief use is for the fresh retail trade, and they must be fancy in 
quality. This is the only class of carcasses that is extensively 
sold as whole carcasses. They are shipped in carlots to eastern 
points, the greatest demand being in the winter months. They 
usually weigh 100 to 160 pounds. 

Pigs. — These are carcasses of light, young hogs that are 
comparatively lean and light colored in flesh, with thin, soft 
skin, soft, red bones, and weighing from 20 to 100 pounds. They 
are dressed and sold like shippers. Roasting pigs are dressed 
suckling pigs which are fat and smooth. They are sold like 
winter lambs direct to hotels and restaurants. The most de- 
sired weight is 15 to 20 pounds, but pigs weighing 30 pounds 
are used. 

The Grades of Lard. 

From one-tenth to one-third of the hog carcass is made 
into lard in large packing houses, the proportion varying with 
the relative price of lard and grade of hogs. Lard is sold under 
six different names representing differences in whiteness, grain, 
flavor, and keeping qualities. Lard is made from leaf fat, fat 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 311 

backs, and fat trimmings from ham, shoulder, belly, jowl, and 
head. Some hams trim fifteen per cent. The highest grade of 
lard is Kettle Rendered Leaf Lard, made from leaf fat. It is 
very white in color and finest in grain and flavor of all grades 
of lard. Then there is Kettle Rendered Lard made mostly 
from fat backs, with perhaps a small addition of leaf fat. Fat 
trimmings are also used at times. It ranks second only to the 
preceding grade. Neutral Lard is made from leaf or back fat 
at a lower temperature than is required in the manufacture of 
kettle rendered leaf lard. No. 1 Neutral Lard is made from 
leaf fat only. It is tasteless, free of acids and impurities, smooth 
grained, and remains unchanged in odor and color. No. 2 
Neutral Lard is made from back fat. It is not as white in 
color nor as fine in grain as No. 1 and sells at a lower price. 
Ninety per cent, or more of the lard made at Chicago is known 
as Prime Steam Lard. It is made from fat trimmings and 
internal fats. It is darker colored and coarser grained than 
other grades and is the form in which hog fat can be most econom- 
ically stored and shipped. It is refined before using. Then 
there is Refined Lard made from prime steam lard by a bleach- 
ing and stirring process. Also there is Compound Lard or 
Lard Compound, which is a mixture of lard, stearin or other 
animal fat, and vegetable oil, usually cottonseed oil. 

Government Inspection for Disease. 

The first inspection made of animals going to an inspected 
establishment is ante-mortem or on the hoof. This examination 
is made on the delivery of the live stock to the packers. Any 
animals showing symptoms of disease or disabled condition are 
tagged "U. S. Suspect" and set apart for a more detailed ex- 
amination. Animals condemned on the hoof are sent to separate 
establishments provided for such purpose, killed and denatured, 
after which the product may be used for inedible greases and 
fertilizer. 

Carcasses of hogs which have passed the ante-mortem 
examination are next inspected immediately after killing, scrap- 
ing, and partial removal of the head. If any evidence of disease 
appears the carcass is tagged "U. S. Retained" and sent to the 
"retained room" for further inspection of glands throughout 
the carcass. If no suspicious symptoms whatever are discovered, 
the hog goes back into the meat supply. Another examination 



312 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

of all carcasses is made as soon as they are cut open and the 
viscera exposed. Hams and bacon are inspected during and 
after curing. 

All condemned carcasses and cuts are thrown into a large 
steam-tight tank under government supervision. Kerosene oil 
is poured on the meat to prevent any possibility of it ever being 
offered for sale as fit for human food. The tank is then sealed, 
steam turned on, and the contents cooked at 280 degrees Fahren- 
heit for eight hours. The product is then turned back to the 
packers for soap grease and fertilizer materials. 

By-Products of the Hog. 

Packers estimate that practically 70 per cent, of the live 
hog is merchantable as fresh or cured meat; including lard. 
Slaughtering and handling involves a shrink of about 10 per 
cent., which includes the contents of stomach and intestines 
and loss of weight by evaporation of moisture. The other 20 
per cent, is converted into numerous useful by-products. A 
larger proportion of the hog is edible than of any other food 
animal, and the value of the by-products is correspondingly 
less. Among the edible by-products may be mentioned pepsin, 
derived from hog stomachs; livers, used in the manufacture of 
liver sausage; and neutral, a specially prepared lard, largely 
used as an ingredient of oleomargarine. Lard proper is not 
commonly considered a by-product; it is one of the primary prod- 
ucts. Nearly 15 per cent, of the live weight goes into lard. Part 
of this lard is further processed into lard oil and lard stearin. Lard 
oil is used for illuminating purposes and as a lubricant. Stearin 
enters into the manufacture of chewing gum and soft candies. 

Brains are packed in cans, frozen, and offered for sale. 
Tongues are canned or pickled. Hearts go into sausage. Tails, 
snouts, and ears are rich in gelatin or glue. Kidneys are canned 
or frozen. Milts or spleens are used as a feed for growing fishes 
at fish hatcheries. The intestines are cleaned, processed, and 
made into chitterlings, a food product to be fried like oysters, 
much favored by colored people. Stomachs are used as sausage 
containers. Something like 7 per cent, of the weight of the hog 
is represented in inedible by-products in the raw state which are 
manufactured into glue, soap, glycerin, blood meal, tankage, 
curled hair, and fertilizer material. Even the rinds from skinned 
hams and bacons, as well as the back skin of the hog, are utilized 
for leather. Nothing is wasted. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 313 

Conclusions. 

The following conclusions may be drawn from the study 
of the swine carcass and its various products: 

1. In order to bring the highest market price, lard hogs 
must be fat and well tucked up in the underline. 

2. The greatest demand is for 200- to 300-pound hogs, 
and hog growers usually obtain the most profit by fattening 
and selling their hogs at weights ranging from 200 to 275 pounds. 

3. Barrows outsell sows because they carry less cheap 
meat on the underline. 

4. No other animal equals the lard hog in its fat-storing 
tendency. 

5. The production of lard hogs furnishes a logical chan- 
nel of disposal for corn, because corn is a fattening food and 
lard brings a much higher price than tallow. 

6. Any kind of a hog finds a buyer on the market, but 
the price paid depends on the kind of carcass the hog will yield. 

7. The development of the packing industry has made 
an outlet for the plainer sorts of hogs which otherwise would 
be a drug upon the market. 

8. No other kind of meat comes so nearly being manu- 
factured by packers as does pork. 

9. Indian corn and the American packing industry have 
combined to develop the American swine industry into a busi- 
ness of mammoth proportions. Corn, properly supplemented, 
makes pork economically, and pork finds ready sale because 
packers have discovered many ways of placing pork on the 
market in attractive and highly palatable form combined with 
most excellent keeping qualities. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

HOG MARKETS AND PORK PACKING— PAST AND 
PRESENT. 

During the first half of the nineteenth century, Cincinnati 
was the leading pork-packing center of this continent, and this 
position was maintained until 1863, at which time Chicago 
took the lead. One by one, other western cities have crowded 
ahead of Cincinnati until now her rank is fifteenth in the list 
of American hog-packing cities. That Cincinnati's supremacy 
was not a permanent one was due to the fact that until the 
West was settled, live-stock conditions were very unstable, 
and the logical packing center in 1850 was found to be too far 
to the east of the center of hog production as it existed twenty 
years later. With the settling of the cornbelt and the rapid 
extension of the hog's domain to the westward, Chicago was 
enabled, by virtue of her location and direct railway connections 
with the heart of the cornbelt, to gain and hold supremacy as a 
pork-packing center. The evolution of the gigantic pork- 
packing business of the United States may be told in brief by 
first reviewing the growth and development of the business at 
Cincinnati, and then following it to Chicago at the close of the 
Civil War. 

Early packing at Cincinnati. — In 1833 Cincinnati packed 
85,000 hogs. Five years later the number packed in the year 
had risen to 182,000 head. In 1843 no less than 250,000 hogs 
were consumed by the numerous packing establishments then 
doing a thriving business at Cincinnati, and the town was dubbed 
"Porkopolis," which name was formerly in general use, but is 
now nearly obsolete. Cincinnati slaughtered 360,000 hogs for 
packing purposes in 1853, and in 1863 the highest mark was 
reached, the number that year being 608,457. The demands of 
the army were largely accountable for the large number packed 
during the last mentioned year. Prior to the Civil War, Cin- 
cinnati was the center of the finest hog-raising region in the 
world, including the states of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana. 
It was in this favorable environment and under the stimulus 
afforded by a large, near-by market that the Poland-China 
breed originated during the period mentioned. Although Chicago 

314 



Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock 315 

took the lead in the number of hogs packed following the war, 
Cincinnati continued to hold first place for a considerable time 
so far as the quality of hogs packed was concerned. In 1866 
there were fifteen slaughter houses at Cincinnati, some of which 
employed as many as one hundred hands. One concern slaugh- 
tered 60,000 hogs during that year. Measured by the standards 
of the time, these Cincinnati packing establishments were con- 
sidered to be gigantic in proportions. In the same year, Cin- 
cinnati produced 180,000 barrels of pork, 25,000,000 pounds of 
bacon, and 16,500,000 pounds of lard. 

Development of packing at Chicago. — The earliest pack- 
ing or slaughtering done in Chicago was in 1827; in that year 
Archibald Clybourn erected a slaughter house for the special 
purpose of supplying the garrison at Fort Dearborn. The trade 
was mostly local until 1833, when immigration set westward 
quite strongly, creating a larger demand. During 1835, Mr. 
Clybourn packed about 3,000 hogs, besides considerable beef, 
for which a ready market was at hand. This stock had to be 
picked up at long distances from Chicago and driven on foot 
to the city. Other men soon engaged in the business which 
took on larger proportions, the surplus product finding a mar- 
ket in the East. The slaughter houses were mostly located 
on the south branch of the Chicago river, and into it the offal 
and filth were drained, which in later years became a nuisance 
and was prohibited by the city. In 1863 there were 58 dif- 
ferent establishments in Chicago doing a general packing busi- 
ness. During the winter of 1853-'54, Chicago packed 52,849 
hogs, and in 1860-'61 the number packed was 231,335. 

During the winter-packing season of 1863-'64, the rank 
of the largest packing centers and the number of hogs packed 
by each was as follows: (1) Chicago, 904,159; (2) Cincinnati, 
400,000; (3) St. Louis, 200,000; (4) Louisville, 103,996. 

Growth of American pork packing. — The pork-packing 
year ends March 1st and is divided into two seasons — the sum- 
mer season of eight months, from March 1 to November 1, 
and the winter season of four months, from November 1 to 
March 1. This system came into use before the days of artifi- 
cial refrigeration, and, although such a designation is no longer 
necessary it is still adhered to by statisticans. Before 1873, 
summer packing was not practiced, but it began in September 
of that year when it is said to have reached the number of 505,500. 
The total number of hogs packed in the West during the winter 



316 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



season, and the cost of hogs per 100 pounds live weight, accord- 
ing to the Price Current-Grain Reporter's special reports* since 
1849 and estimates previously, were as follows : 



Season 


Number 


Cost 


Season 


Number 


Cost 


1842-'43 


675,000 




1879-'80 


6,950,451 


$4.18 


1844-'45 


790,000 


$2.65 


1884-85 


6,460,240 


4.29 


1849-'50 


1,652,220 


2.13 


1889-'90 


6,663,802 


3.66 


1854-'55 


2,124,404 


3.37 


1894-'95 


7,191,520 


4.28 


1859-60 


2,350,822 


4.73 


1899-'00 


8,675,898 


4.29 


1864-65 


2,422,779 


11.46 


1904-05 ^ 


10,456,503 


4.67 


1869-'70 


2,635,312 


9.22 


1909-10 


8,725,224 


8.30 


1874-'75 


5,566,226 


6.66 


1914-15 


12,559,412 


6.74 








1918-'19 


16,877,391 


17.27 



The number of hogs packed in the West during the cal- 
endar years, from 1845 to 1918, were as follows: 



Year Number 

1845 781,000 

1850 1,652,000 

1855 2,124,000 

1860 2,350,000 

1865 2,451,000 

1870 2,635,000 

1875 6,485,000 

1880 12,210,000 



Year Number 

1885 11,350,000 

1890 16,980,000 

1895 15,285,000 

1900 23,265,000 

1905 25,485,000 

1910 25,729,000 

1915 30,737,000 

1918 35,116,000 



Present leading hog-packing centers.^ — During the fiscal 
year 1918, swine were slaughtered under Federal meat inspec- 
tion at 292 establishments in the United States located in 127 
cities and towns. From the government reports of animals 
slaughtered under federal inspection, the following table is 
constructed, showing the rank of the twenty largest hog-packing 
cities during the fiscal year 1918: 



Number of 
City hogs packed 

1. Chicago 6,692,697 

2. Kansas City 2,775,329 

3. Omaha 2,132,068 

4. St. Joseph 1,772,773 

5. National Stock Yards, 

111 1,490,954 

6. Sioux City 1,323,741 

7. Indianapolis 1,235,443 

8. Boston 1,227,496 

9. St. Paul 1,190,948 

10. Milwaukee 1,121,361 



Number of 
City hogs packed 

11. St. Louis 1,091,769 

12. Cleveland 957,093 

13. Detroit 733,424 

14. Buffalo 687,642 

15. Cincinnati 676,849 

16. New York 624,811 

17. Fort Worth 601,976 

18. Jersey City 515,134 

19. Philadelphia 508,039 

20. Newark 483,068 



* Price Current-Grain Reporter Year Book, 1919. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 317 

Chicago packing at present time. — The number of hogs 
packed at Chicago* by the leading hog-packing firms in 1916, 
1917, and 1918, and the total number packed at Chicago in 
each of these years was as follows: 

1918 1917 1916 

Armour & Co 1,498,500 1,253,000 1,645,700 

Swift & Co 1,144,600 788,400 932,000 

Wilson & Co 795,900 578,000 652,300 

Morris & Co 646,800 492,700 596,000 

Hammond Co 628,800 420,000 497,100 

Western Packing Co 474,300 398,200 690,100 

Anglo-American Co 442,700 342,000 465,800 

Boyd, Lunham & Co 384,600 272,500 369,700 

Independent Packing Co 293,100 289,400 509,200 

Brennan Packing Co 286,000 196,000 320,200 

Roberts & Oake 284,800 195,300 272,600 

Miller & Hart 208,100 171,000 188,400 

All others 943,278 827,833 984,439 

Totals 8,031,478 6,224,333 8,423,539 

By-products from early hog packing. — The Report of the 
Commissioner of Agriculture for 1866 contains an account of 
early hog-packing operations which is of interest for comparison 
with modern methods whereby all by-products of the hog are 
utilized. The following, written by Mr. Charles Cist, of Cin- 
cinnati, appeared in the report for that year: 

"I have referred to the remarkable fact, that there was 
a period in the West when corn would not, in some sections, 
command six cents per bushel, and in others was of so little 
value as to be substituted for wood as fuel. Not less extraor- 
dinary is the fact, within the knowledge of hundreds now in 
Cincinnati, that in the early ages of pork packing, say in 1828, 
there was so little demand for any portion of the hog, other 
than hams, shoulders, sides, and lard, that the heads, spare- 
ribs, neck pieces, backbone, etc., were regularly thrown into 
the Ohio river to get rid of them!" The same writer also says: 
"The slaughterers formerly received the gut fat for the whole 
of the labor of dressing, wagoning the hogs more than a mile 
to the pork houses free of expense to the owners. Every year, 
however, adds to the value of fat, heart, liver, etc., for food 
and the hoofs, hair, and other parts for manufacturing pur- 
poses. Six years since, from 10 to 25 cents per hog was paid 
as a bonus for the privilege of killing. This was later raised 
to 75 cents and even to $1.00." 



'Year Book of Figures, 1919, 



318 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

In 1863, hog-packing products consisted of bristles, lard, 
mess pork, hams, shoulders, bacon, and lard oil used for mak- 
ing candles. The beginning of the immense packing-house 
by-products industry of modem times was described by an 
early writer as follows: "Since the Chicago river has ceased 
to be the sewer for all the offal from the slaughter and pack- 
ing houses, the owners have been obliged to cart it off to the 
commons and open fields beyond the city limits at a very heavy 
expense to them. An enterprising firm has, however, con- 
tracted with all the principal firms the present season to carry 
it all away by the owners paying half the expenses. Instead, 
however, of carrying it off and throwing it away, they have com- 
menced preparing it for fertilizers. They have provided centri- 
fugal machines, into which they place the refuse from the lard 
and grease tanks, and throw out all the water, leaving only the 
solid parts, and that in a pulpy or pulverized condition. In 
this way they will prepare about three thousand tons the present 
season, all of which will be shipped east for the manufacture of 
commercial manures. Another concern is gathering all the 
bones it can pick up, from which are manufactured large quan- 
tities of animal charcoal, and such as are not suitable for that 
purpose are ground up and sent east, they having shipped the 
past season over three hundred tons of ground bones alone." 

Exports of pork products. — A good idea of the importance 
of American hog packing to European nations under normal 
conditions may be obtained from the following table, giving 
exports of pork products for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913: 
Pork prodticts Pounds Value 

Bacon 156,675,310 $21,211,605 

Hams and shoulders 157,709,316 20,708,882 

Pork, canned 4,010,862 483,959 

Pork, fresh 1,355,378 159,654 

Pork, pickled 45,729,471 4,944,448 

Lard 476,107,857 52,509,217 

Lard compounds 73,754,400 7,070,967 

Sausage 4,716,610 601,596 

Sausage casings 40,013,760 5,466,661 

Totals 960,072,964 $113,156,989 

The only countries exporting hog products to any great 
extent besides America at the present time are Denmark and 
China. The United Kingdom is our largest customer, and 
Germany ranks second. Germany's purchases, however, con- 
sist almost exclusively of lard. Trade in meats with Germany 
is not possible to any large extent, owing to the high duty im- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 319 



posed. France is a steady importer of lard, and also buys some 
fat backs, trade in the latter being interfered with by a high 
duty. We also sell a good many dried sausages to France where 
this product meets with much appreciation. Italy, Switzerland, 
Spain, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, the West Indies, 
Central America, all countries in South America, Asia, and 
Australia are buyers of hog products in some form. Some 
countries buy only the casings for sausage making, but all pay 
tribute to the American hog in one form or another. 

Modern large hog markets.— The census of 1909 estimated 
that 53,219,568 hogs were slaughtered in the United States in 
that year. Census reports indicate that about two-thirds of 
the hogs marketed in the United States pass through the large 
central markets, about one-twelfth are sold for local slaughter, 
and one-third are slaughtered on farms and ranges. 

The receipts of hogs* at the principal markets of the coun- 
try during 1918 were as follows: 

9. Pittsburg 1,808,080 

10. Cincinnati 1,462,702 

11. Buffalo 1,300,738 

12. Cleveland 1,223,425 

13. Fort Worth 762,486 

14. Louisville 757,912 

15. Wichita 617,745 

16. Nashville 580,961 



1. Chicago 8,614,190 

2. Omaha 3,429,533 

3. Kansas City 3,327,722 

4. St. Louis 3,256,400 

5. Indianapolis 2,749,976 

6. Sioux City 2,421,166 

7. St. Joseph 2,351,013 

8. St. Paul 2,061,390 



Total 36,725,439 

As shown by the above figures, Chicago receives more than 
twice as many hogs as any other market in the country. Of the 
8,614,190 hogs received at the Chicago yards during 1918, 
7,643,326 were slaughtered by Chicago packers, 946,414 were 
shipped out alive to other points for slaughter, and 24,450 were 
shipped out for feeding. In addition to the hogs included in 
the above figures, small packing firms at Chicago, located out- 
side the yards, received and slaughtered 388,152 hogs in 1918. 

The growth of the Chicago market is shown by the fol- 
lowing list of receipts and shipments of hogs at that point dur- 
ing the years mentioned : 



Year 


Receipts 


Shipments 


Year 


Receipts 


Shipments 


1858 

1860 

1866 

1870 

1875 


540,486 

392,864 

961,746 

1,693,158 

3,912,110 


192,013 
227,164 
482,875 
924,453 
1,582,643 


1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

1918 


7,059,555 
7,663,829 
8,109,064 
5,586,858 
8,614,190 


1,394,990 
1,985,700 
1,452,183 
1,202,390 
970,864 















Year Book of Figures, 1919. 



320 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

It is interesting to note that the advent of the refrigerator 
car, about 1875, had a marked effect on the proportionate num- 
ber of hogs shipped. The largest number of hogs received at 
Chicago in a year was in 1916, when 9,188,224 head were re- 
ceived at the yards proper. If receipts by outside packing 
firms are included, the figure is raised to 9,528,267. The highest 
record for a month is credited to January, 1916, when 1,227,508 
hogs were received at the yards and enough by outside packers 
to make the total 1,286, 616. The record week was that ending 
January 8, 1916, when 334,279 were received at the yards, and 




Fig. 99. Unloading Hogs at Chicago. 

356,362 in all. On November 29, 1918, the largest day's receipts 
were recorded, the figures being 96,964 and 101,601 respectively. 

The number of hogs marketed annually varies greatly. 
This fluctuation is caused partly by the ravages of disease, and 
partly by the fact that if an unexpected or temporary demand 
springs up, and higher prices rule, great numbers of hogs of 
inferior size and weight are rushed to market. 

Some peculiarities of the hog crop. — The following table 
gives the monthly average weights of hogs at Chicago during 
the years from 1907 to 1918 inclusive. The highest monthly 
average of each year is given in black type, while the lowest 
monthly average is enclosed in parenthesis: 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 321 



Year 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 

January.. 223 215 (203) (210) 226 (212) 226 (216) 223 195 (199) (216) 

February. 222 212 204 213 230 217 230 224 224 204 204 231 

March... 228 212 206 218 239 218 240 233 231 214 209 238 

April.... 234 219 212 227 241 227 242 233 233 219 213 242 

May 235 218 216 239 242 232 242 236 233 220 217 238 

June 236 217 219 242 236 235 244 237 231 226 225 235 

July 240 222 225 246 233 239 243 244 238 231 232 243 

August . . 250 224 232 255 239 240 233 248 246 232 233 243 

September 253 219 232 259 224 235 222 242 235 223 231 247 

October... 235 (207) 227 253 212 226 209 229 204 210 212 233 

Novemb'r(209) 213 225 232 (208) 222 (207) 218 (187) 195 209 226 

December 214 211 214 224 213 223 213 226 190 (193) 211 223 

Average . 231 216 218 235 228 226 228 231 219 210 213 234 

The above table shows that, as a rule, the hogs marketed in 
August and September are the heaviest of the year, while the 
smallest average weights usually occur in the months of Novem- 
ber, December, and January. This is due to the fact that the 
crop of spring pigs arrives on the market mainly in November, 
December, and January, being held until the hog's share of the corn 
crop has been utilized in fattening him for the market. The 
heaviest weights are attained in August and September because 
of the absence from the market at that time of any considerable 
number of young hogs. Relatively few hogs are marketed dur- 
ing August and September, but the receipts include a larger 
proportion of aged hogs than in other months, the result of 
culling down brood sows after pigs are weaned and before winter 
begins. Hogs are marketed in much larger numbers in winter 
than in summer, the heaviest marketing usually occurring in 
December and January. That the largest receipts occur in 
December and January and the smallest in August and Septem- 
ber is explained by the close dependence of hogs on corn. Hog 
growers wait until the corn crop can be put on the backs of 
their hogs before marketing them. This explains the monthly 
fluctuation in receipts. 



CHAPTER XXV. 
MARKET CLASSIFICATION OF SWINE. 

At Chicago the charge for the yardage of hogs is 10 cents 
per head. Commission charges for selling hogs are as follows: 
Hogs in car lots, 20 cents per head; single-deck cars, minimum 
$10, maximum $12; double-deck cars, minimum $15, maximum 
$20; less than 25 hogs in one car, 40 cents per head. Public 
inspection of hogs costs 20 cents per car, no fee being charged 
on cars containing less than twenty head. Corn is $2 per bushel. 

Following is the classification of swine as used on the prin- 
cipal markets and by newspapers reporting these markets: 

Classes Sub-classes 

Prime Heavy Hogs 300-400 lbs None 

f Heavy Butchers 260-300 lbs. 

Butcher Hogs 150-300 lbs . . . \ Medium Butchers. . . .200-260 lbs. 

[Light Butchers 150-200 lbs. 

f Heavy Packing 275-500 lbs. 

Packing Hogs 200-500 lbs . . . ] Medium Packing 225-275 lbs. 

I Mixed Packing 200-300 lbs. 

English Bacon 160-220 lbs. 

T ;„i,f w^„o 10K oon iko U. S. Bacon 160-200 lbs. 

Light Hogs 125-220 lbs . . . ^ight Mixed 150-200 lbs. 

[ Light Light 125-150 lbs 

Pigs 50-125 lbs. 

Roughs 

Stags 

Boars 

Feeding Pigs 50-150 lbs. 

Roasting Pigs 15-30 lbs. 

Governments 
Cripples 
Dead Hogs 

Prime Heavy Hogs. 

This class calls for a prime, heavy, fat-back hog, weighing 
from 300 to 400 pounds — the extreme of the fat or lard hog 
type. With the tendency of producers and consumers to favor 
the lighter hogs, there are not so many prime heavy hogs as 
formerly. Only the best hogs of these weights classify here. 
They are usually barrows. They yield a heavy loin carcass. 

Butcher Hogs. 

This class is the most numerous and the most popular on 
the market. Butcher hogs must be very good in quality, correct 

322 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 323 

in form, and show evidence of ripeness in condition. They are 
principally barrows. Barrows sell more readily and at better 
prices than sows. In a drove of butcher hogs there may be 
present a few good sows without detracting from the value of 
the drove. Good young sows are usually kept on the farm for 
breeding purposes, and poor young sows and old sows will not 
take on the finish required in the butcher hog class. Butcher 
hogs yield light loin carcasses and shipper carcasses and are 
commonly used in the fresh meat trade. This class yields the 
pork chop, ham, and bacon. They range in age from six to 
ten months. Except in age and weight, the three sub-classes 
of butcher hogs are practically the same. The butcher hog 




Fig. 100, Prime Heavy Hogs. 

carried to sufficient weight becomes a prime heavy hog, but hog 
growers do not, as a rule, find this practice a profitable one. 

Packing Hogs. 

This class ranks next to the butcher class in numbers. These 
hogs are a poorer sort than butcher hogs, and it is here that we 
find old brood sows and all other hogs that are heavy enough 
for this class and not good enough to classify as butcher hogs 
or as prime heavy hogs. However, it does not include the 
poorest classes, such as roughs, boars, and coarse stags. This 
is the class of hogs which, as the name indicates, is of particular 
importance and interest to the packer. The side meat from 
these hogs is used principally in the various processes of curing. 



324 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

It is made into mess pork, short-cut mess pork, dry-salt sides, 
and the hams and shoulders are cured. These hogs range in 
age from nine months upward. A 200-pound packing hog 
is usually an older hog than a 200-pound butcher hog. Packing 
hogs differ widely in character. The class includes old sows 
that bear evidence of once having had pigs, called "seedy" 
sows, but are fitted in very high condition; good packing hogs, 
either heavy or medium according to weight; barrows that are 
not well enough developed and not good enough in form, quality, 
and condition to go into the butcher hog class, and there may be 
a mixture of sows and barrows quite varying in quality and 
condition. Pregnant sows sell with a dockage of 40 pounds. 




Fig. 101. Prime Butcher Hogs. 

Sub-classes of packing hogs. — Heavy packing includes 
the heavy hogs of the packing hog class, and medium packing 
includes the lighter hogs. Mixed packing is a sub-class that 
is somewhat characteristic in itself, for it includes hogs coming 
from local buyers in the country, and represents hogs of different 
classes as well as different grades, as the name indicates. There 
may be heavy packing, medium packing, some light hogs, and 
even a few butcher hogs in the drove. Many such droves come 
to the market and are sold to the packer without sorting. In 
such cases the sorting is done after slaughtering when the car- 
casses are being cut, the heavy ones being sent one way and the 
lighter ones another. It is principally mixed packing hogs that 
furnish a field for operation to the speculator. He buys several 
carloads of these mixed packing hogs and sorts them into various 
classes and resells them. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 325 

Light Hogs. 

These are mostly from five to eight months old. It will 
be noticed that there is some overlapping in weight between 
this and preceding classes. This class includes hogs that are 
too light in weight or too lacking in condition or quality to 
classify as butcher hogs. With the possible exception of some 
of the English bacon hogs, light hogs are not as heavy as packing 
hogs. As a class, light hogs have better quality than packing 
hogs. The light hog class does not include roughs, stags, and 
boars, which form separate classes. Although alike in weight, 
hogs of this class vary a great deal in form, quality, and con- 
dition. Such being the case, the meat from them is prepared 
differently, thus making the sub-classes of more importance 
than in the two former classes. The sub-classes of light hogs 




Fig. 102. Choice Butcher Hogs. 

are English bacon hogs, bacon hogs of the United States, light 
mixed hogs, and light-light hogs. 

English bacon hogs. — The kind of a hog that is typical of 
this sub-class of light hogs has already been described in the 
chapter dealing with bacon hog type. The hog that is repre- 
sentative of this sub-class belongs primarily to Great Britain, 
Denmark, and Canada. Practically no hogs of this type are 
received at Chicago. The St. Paul market receives a few. 
Many hogs are sold on the Chicago and other markets for bacon 
purposes, but the majority of them are not of true bacon type. 
This hog must be long in body, deep in side, with comparatively 
narrow back, narrow and light hams and shoulders, and light 
muscular neck. As the side of the hog furnishes the best cuts, 
it is desirable to have the side as well developed as possible in 
length and depth. This hog must have firm flesh, be well cov- 



326 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



ered with lean meat or muscle, and must not have an excess of 
external fat. The weight must be between 160 and 220 pounds, 
with weights between 175 and 190 pounds preferred. Such 
weights insure cuts that are most desirable as to size, flavor, 
and firmness. A hog smaller than 160 pounds would furnish 
a side of bacon that would be too thin and watery, while a hog 
over 220 pounds would yield a side that would be too thick and 
too fat. 

Bacon hogs of the United States. — As there are only a 
few real bacon hogs produced in this country, the trade is sup- 
plied from the lighter hogs of lard hog breeding which show a 







Fig. 103. Packing Sow. 



tendency toward the bacon type. In other words, this sub- 
class includes hogs selected from the light hog class that conform 
as nearly as possible to the bacon type. They weigh from 160 
to 200 pounds, and range in age from six to eight months. The 
bacon made from them is inferior to that made from true bacon 
hogs and hence brings a somewhat lower price. 

Light mixed hogs. — Here we find somewhat of a miscella- 
neous class quite similar, except as to weight, to mixed packing 
hogs. This class contains hogs of the light butcher weights that 
are too poor in quality, form, and condition for butcher hogs 
It also contains hogs of the same weights as bacon hogs, that 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 327 

are too much of the fat or lard type for bacon. This class, then, 
is made up of outcasts of two other classes of hogs; in one case 
it takes the poorer hogs and in the other case the better hogs, 
considered from the fat or lard hog standpoint. Hogs of this 
class are used principally for the fresh meat trade and weigh 
from 150 to 200 pounds. They range in age from five to seven 
months. 

Light-light hogs. — These range in weight from 125 to 150 
pounds, and in age from five to six months. They are called 
"light light" because they are the lightest of light hogs. They 
are used principally for the fresh meat trade. In the Buffalo 
market light hogs weighing from 130 to 180 pounds are called 
"Yorkers." They are so called because they find ready sale 
on the New York market and are very often shipped there from 
Buffalo. "Dairies" is another term used in Buffalo, and means 
hogs that have been fed on slops and refuse from dairies. The 
flesh of these hogs is not so firm nor will they dress out so well 
as corn-fed hogs. 

Pigs. 

Pigs, as they are considered on the market, range in weight 
from 50 to 125 pounds, and in age from 33^ to 6 months. All 
pigs within these limits bought for slaughter classify here. They 
are used principally to supply the demand from the cheaper 
restaurants and lunch counters, and are in greatest demand in 
winter, being hard to preserve fresh in summer and too young 
to cure. 

Roughs. 

In this class we find hogs of all sizes that are very coarse^ 
rough, and lacking in condition. They are sometimes called 
"throwouts." The pork from these hogs is used for the cheaper 
class of trade for both packing and fresh meat purposes. In 
market reports, pigs and roughs are frequently classed together;, 
not because they belong in the same class, but because they sell 
at about the same price. 

Stags. 

Stags are hogs that at one time were boars beyond the pig- 
stage and were castrated. They sell with a dockage of 70 pounds. 
If they are of good quality and condition and do not show too- 



328 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

much stagginess, they go in with the various grades of packing 
hogs. When they are too coarse and staggy in appearance 
they are sold in the same class as boars. 

Boars. 

Boars are always sold in a class by themselves and bring 
a much lower price than the best hogs on the market at the same 
time. They sell without dockage. The pork is used to supply 
the cheaper class of trade and also for making sausage. Boars 
are not usually marketed until their days of breeding service 
are over and they are old and coarse. Many of them are con- 
demned by government inspectors because of sexual odor. They 
then bring only fertilizer price. 

Feeding Pigs. 

During the last few years the prevention of hog cholera 
by means of the serum treatment has made possible the rapidly 
growing practice of buying feeder pigs at the large markets. 
Chicago sent practically no hogs back to farms prior to 1917, 
but in that year shipped 45,448 feeder hogs, and in 1918 shipped 
24,450. Sioux City shipped 7,715 in 1916, 108,941 in 1917, and 
41,004 in 1918. Kansas City shipped 18,183 in 1917, and 174,929 
in 1918. St. Paul is the leading feeder hog market with 22,576 
in 1916, 231,631 in 1917, and 172,569 in 1918. Thirteen leading 
markets sent out 139,161 head in 1916, 708,416 in 1917, and 
774,011 in 1918. Previously, the purchase of pigs at the mar- 
kets for feeding purposes was a dangerous practice and was not 
often atterhpted. They are now given the preventative treat- 
ment for cholera before leaving the market. It is necessary 
that pigs leaving the Chicago yards shall be inspected for disease 
by government officials, shall be given the single serum treat- 
ment, and shall be dipped. The charge for these services usually 
amounts to about $1.50 per cwt. The commission charge for 
buying hogs weighing on an average of over 140 pounds per 
head is $10 per car, either single or double deck; hogs averaging 
140 pounds or less, $15 per car. 

Feeder pigs weigh from 50 to 150 pounds, with weights 
from 90 to 120 pounds most desired, and must be in thrifty, 
growing condition, but not fat. They should show quality and 
evidence of good breeding, and should be as uniform as possible 
in size and appearance. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 329 

Roasting Pigs. 

These are from three to six weeks old and weigh from 15 
to 30 pounds. They come to market in small numbers and 
only during holiday seasons. They are taken direct from their 
dams, dressed with head and feet on, and served like spring 
chickens or turkeys. The price varies greatly. 

Governments. 

Before hogs are allowed to pass over the scales to be weighed 
out to the packer, the speculator, the shipper, or any one else 
who may choose to buy them, they must first pass the scrutiny 
of a government inspector. All hogs not considered sound in 
every respect are tagged by this inspector and retained for fur- 
ther examination. Badly pregnant sows, hogs with bunches, 
boils, etc., also hogs with cuts on the hams and shoulders are 
retained. These are called "Governments." They are usually 
bought up by a local dealer and taken to one of the smaller 
packing houses where they are slaughtered under the supervision 
of an inspector. If found to be affected so as to make the flesh 
unfit for human food, they are condemned and tanked. The 
tank is a large steam-tight receptacle, like a steam boiler, in 
which the carcass is converted into grease and fertilizer. 

Cripples. 

These are hogs that are not able to keep their feet. Weak- 
ness of pasterns, feet, and legs is a common fault in lard hogs, 
especially in those heavily fattened on corn not properly supple- 
mented with protein feeds. Lack of exercise is another cause. 
Overcrowding of cars and loading and unloading too hurriedly 
result in a good many crippled hogs. On the market there are 
far more cripples among hogs than among any other class of 
stock. Crippled hogs sell to speculators for fully a dollar less 
per cwt. than they would have otherwise brought. 

Dead Hogs. 

These are hogs that died in transit due to overheat, rough 
handling, over-feeding in hot weather before shipping, and 
other causes. They are used in the manufacture of grease, 
soap, and fertilizer. If they weigh 100 pounds or over, they 
bring the fertilizer price, which is now about $3.00 per cwt. If they 



330 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



weigh less, they are held in payment of the cost of handling and 
the shipper gets no return. Actual count of dead stock removed 
from cars at Chicago, as made by the U. S. Bureau of Animal 
Industry for a period of two years, showed the number to be 1 
out of 2500 cattle, 1 out of 164 calves, 1 out of 526 sheep, and 
1 out of 244 hogs. 

Hog Prices at Chicago. 

Chicago prices in 1918.*^On Monday, Sept. 16, 1918, two 
loads of butcher hogs, averaging 214 and 249 pounds respectively, 
sold at $20.95, the highest record for carload lots on the Chicago 
open market. On the same day 32 head averaging 192 pounds 
sold at $21.00, and ten loads averaging from 194 to 246 pounds 
sold at $20.90. On Nov. 25, 1907, the general average price 
on the Chicago market was $3.96. In 1896 whole droves of 
packing -hogs sold between $2.70 and $3.00, and the extreme 
range of prices that year was $2.40 to $4.45. The very heavy 
demand for pork products during the World War resulted in 
new record top prices and new record average prices for all 
classes of hogs at Chicago in 1918. 

Market values of the various classes. — No detailed records 
are kept of the average prices made by the various market 
classes of hogs on the Chicago market. The following table 
gives the yearly average weights and yearly average prices of 
hogs marketed at Chicago from 1909 to 1918, and also the aver- 
ages for the entire ten-year period. 



Year 


Average 
weight 


Heavy- 

packing 

hogs 


Light 
hogs 


Pigs 


Mixed 
hogs 


All 
classes 


1909 


Pounds 

218 
235 
228 
226 
228 
231 
219 
210 
213 
234 


$7.45 
8.90 
6.70 
7.55 
8.20 
8.20 
7.00 
9.65 
15.20 
17.50 


$7.25 
8.90 
6.70 
7.50 
8.45 
8.35 
7.20 
9.45 
14.90 
17.60 


$6.55 
8.80 
6.05 
6.40 
7.35 
7.60 
6.60 
9.40 
14.40 
15.57 


$7.25 
8.90 
6.70 
7.60 
8.50 
8.30 
7.20 
9.60 
15.10 
17.40 


$7.35 


1910 


8.90 


1911 


6.70 


1912 


7.55 


1913 


8.35 


1914 


8 30 


1915 


7.10 


1916 

1917 


9.60 
15.10 


1918 


17.45 


Ten year average. . . 


224 


$9.65 


$9.65 


$8.90 


$9.65 


$9.65 



= Year Book of Figures, 1919. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 331 

Comparison of the hog market with the cattle and sheep 
markets brings out strikingly the fact that there is considerable 
spread in the price of cattle and sheep, and relatively little spread 
in the price of hogs. A report for any day of the year will sub- 
stantiate this statement. Between the best cattle and the 
poorest cattle on the market, there is a tremendous difference 
in price per cwt., and even between the best and poorest fat 
steers there is a great difference. The same is true of sheep. 
The price of cattle and sheep is determined very largely by 
condition and quality, but hogs sell almost entirely by weight. 
The condition and quality of hogs vary considerably and affect the 
price, but do not affect the price to any great degree. Omitting 
pigs, roughs, and boars, which make up a small percentage of a 
day's run, one dollar will usually cover the spread on the bulk of 
hogs sold each day. There are several reasons for the small 
spread in price of hogs. 1. Packers have discovered and de- 
veloped methods of curing cuts from the poorer hogs which enable 
them to put this meat on the market in attractive and appetizing 
form. This has increased the price of the plainer classes of hogs. 
2. Hogs do not vary so much in dressing percentage as cattle 
and sheep. 3. All hogs are strictly meat animals, whereas the 
cattle market receives a considerable number of dairy animals, 
and the sheep market receives a large number of Merinos. 
4. Age does not make pork as tough as beef and mutton. 
Juiciness and color are less variable in pork than in other meats. 

In 1915, the U. S. Office of Markets and Rural Organiza- 
tion* conducted an investigation which indicated that 35 per 
cent, of the hog crop is marketed in the fall, 41 per cent, in the 
winter, 18 per cent, in the spring, and 6 per cent, in the summer. 
About 60 per cent, of the annual pig crop is farrowed in March, 
April, and May, and is sent to market from eight to ten months 
later weighing from 200 to 250 pounds or over. The largest 
supply of hogs on the market occurs in November, December, 
and January. Lowest prices most frequently occur in Decem- 
ber and January. Highest prices are usually made in March 
and April and in September and October, due to the relatively 
small number of hogs received in these months. Light hogs 
are normally at a higher price level than heavy hogs during 
spring and summer when there is a demand for fresh meats, but 
in the winter packing season heavy hogs bring the highest price 



U. S. Dept. Agr. Report 113. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

BREEDING FOR THE MARKET. 

Hog raising has always been a profitable and favorite de- 
partment of farming in the United States. In colonial times 
pork production was a very simple matter. Hogs were allowed 
to run wild in the woods where they fed upon roots and nat- 
ural grasses and fattened upon acorns and beech and hickory 
nuts, called "mast." The only expense to the farmer was the 
winter feeding of those too young for market and of those reserved 




Fig. 104. An Excellent Boar. 

Duroc-Jersey boar, Good Enuff Again, Champion at the Ohio State 
Fair. Owned by W. H. Robbins, Springfield, Ohio. This boar has size, 
bone, masculinity, a good back, great heart-girth, excellent feeding capacity, 
smoothness, and quality. He weighed 1000 pounds. 

for breeding purposes. Inasmuch as Indian corn was the feed 
used and as this cereal would not repay the expense of trans- 
portation to market until the introduction of railways, it cost 
very little to produce pork. Even after the organization of 
the national government and the settling up of the Middle West 
it was the general impression among farmers that it cost nothing 
for a man to make his own pork, and for a long time large num- 
bers of dressed hogs were sold in that section of the country 

332 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 333 

at prices ranging from seventy-five cents to one dollar per cwt. 
and were considered sufficiently remunerative at these figures. 

As greater areas came under cultivation and the natural 
forests became more restricted, it was found more profitable 
and convenient to feed hogs on corn than to turn them out 
into the woods, as they grew faster and took on more fat. It 
was at this stage in the development of the American swine 
industry that pork packing was commenced, and this gave a 
pronounced impetus to hog production. This was before the 
days of railroads, and hogs were taken overland in droves to 
the nearest packing point. Later, when the railroads came, 
a great saving was effected by eliminating losses due to the 
giving out of hogs on the route, and pork packing and hog rais- 
ing received an impulse that has greatly helped to make pork 
one of the most important staples of the country. 

The census found 26,000,000 hogs in the United States in 
1840, 33,500,000 in 1860, 47,700,000 in 1880, 57,400,000 in 1890, 
and 62,900,000 in 1900. In 1910 the census changed from June 
1 to April 15, and the swine enumerators found only 58,200,000. 
If, however, the number of hogs found on that date increased 
to the number estimated to exist on the following 1st of 
June, the swine on farms in 1910, June 1, probably numbered 
69,200,000. The 58,200,000 swine found by enumerators April 15, 
1910, had increased, according to estimates of the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, to 65,400,000 in 1912, but the unusual prev- 
alence of hog cholera in 1913 reduced the number to 58,900,000 
in 1914. In 1915, the estimated number was 64,600,000; in 
1916, 68,000,000; in 1917, 67,500,000; in 1918, 71,000,000; and 
in 1919, 75,600,000. From the earliest record there has been a 
persistent course of increase of swine in the United States. 

The United States is the outstanding country of the world 
in pork production. The leading countries in numbers of hogs, 
according to the latest available figures, are as follows: 

United States, 1919 75,587,000 Spain, 1916 2,814,000 

Brazil, 1916 17,329,000 United Kingdom, 1918 2,809,000 

Germany, 1915 17,287,000 Philippines, 1915 2,521,000 

Russia and Poland, 1914 . . 12,033,000 Venezuela, 1912 1,618,000 

Hungary, 1913 6,825,000 Belgium, 1913 1,412,000 

Italy, 1914 6,646,000 Roumania, 1916 1,382,000 

Austria, 1910 6,432,000 Portugal, 1908 1,300,000 

Canada, 1918 4,290,000 Netherlands, 1917 1,185,000 

France, 1917 4,200,000 British South Africa, 1911 . . 1,111,000 

Asiatic Russia, 1914 2,962,000 Sweden, 1917 1,030,000 

Argentina, 1918 2,901,000 Australia, 1916 1,007,000 



334 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The distribution of hogs (on farms) in the United States 
on January 1, 1919, was as follows: 

North Atlantic Division 3,059,000 

South Atlantic Division 9,164,000 

North Central, East of Mississippi River 18,194,000 

North Central, West of Mississippi River 27,393,000 

South Central Division 14,918,000 

Far Western Division 2,859,000 



Total 75,587,000 

As hogs are now distributed throughout the geographic 
divisions, the North Central States, extending from Ohio to the 
western line of Kansas, contain 60 per cent, of the national 
total; the Southern States, from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
western line of Texas, have 32 per cent, of the total; the re- 
maining 8 per cent, are in the East and in the Far Western 
States. 

The ten leading states and the number of hogs in each on 
January 1, 1919, were as follows: 

1. Iowa 10,925,000 6. Nebraska 4,250,000 

2. Illinois : 5,724,000 7. Georgia 3,043,000 

3. Missouri 4,943,000 8. Minnesota 2,784,000 

4. Indiana 4,668,000 9. Kansas .2,381,000 

5. Ohio 4,266,000 10. Texas 2,320,000 

The states of the Mississippi valley play a very important 
part in the swine growing industry of the world. No other 
region is so favored as is the corn growing region of the United 
States. 

As previously mentioned, hog production in the United 
States is closely allied with corn production; in fact, hogs are 
more closely allied with corn than are any other of our farm 
animals. Dairy cattle approach hogs in this regard, followed 
by horses, beef cattle, and sheep in the order named. The 
writer has determined the average rank of the various states 
in corn production for the nine-year period from 1907 to 1915 
inclusive. Similar average rankings in each kind of live stock 
were determined for each state, based on the number of animals 
in each state on January 1, from 1908 to 1916 inclusive. For 
example, Kansas' average rank in corn during this period was 
8th., in hogs, 8th., in dairy cattle, 11th.; in horses, 4th.; in beef 
cattle, 4th.; and in sheep, 30th. Thus, Kansas' rank in hogs 
did not vary from her rank in corn; in dairy cattle she varied 
3 points from corn; in horses, 4 points; in beef cattle, 4 points; 
and in sheep, 22 points. If the number of points between hogs 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



335 



and corn in each state are added together, we find that hogs 
varied 196 points from corn in the forty-eight states; dairy- 
cattle varied 233 points from corn; horses, 401 points; beef cat- 
tle, 489 points; and sheep, 788 points. 

The average rank of the states in corn, hogs, and sheep 
for the nine years is herewith presented graphically- It will be 
noticed that in only four states do sheep rank closer to corn 
than do hogs. These are New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, 
Michigan, and Wisconsin. In Rhode Island and North Dakota 





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Fig. 105. Pork Production in United States Closely Related to 
Corn Production. 

These graphs show the average rank of the various states in corn produc- 
tion from 1907 to 1915, and in numbers of hogs and sheep on January 1, from 
1908 to 1916 inclusive. Hogs are closely related to corn, followed by dairy 
cattle, horses, beef cattle, and sheep in the order named. Sheep raising 
has practically no dependence on corn production. 

sheep and hogs vary an equal number of points from the rank 
in corn. In each of the remaining forty- two states, hogs rank 
closer to corn than do sheep. Notice how closely com and hogs 
are associated in the first eight states. There seems to be no 
correlation between sheep and corn. 



336 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

When the United States was settled, swine were brought 
over from Europe, but conditions here, and especially in the 
cornbelt, were very different, and the character of the hog was 
changed to meet the demand as it developed under the different 
conditions. The new type of hog which was then originated 
was what is called the fat or lard hog. There were three prin- 
cipal reasons for its development. These were (1) the abun- 
dance and good fattening qualities of corn, (2) the home de- 
mand for cured meats, and (3) the foreign demand for cheap 
meats. 

1. Corn is a plant native to America, and in the corn- 
belt can be produced with much less cost than can any of the 
other grains. The United States produces three-fourths of the 
world's corn crop. It is a feed comparatively rich in carbo- 
hydrates and much lacking in protein. Carbohydrates are 
used in the animal body for building up fat and to furnish the 
fuel that is used in the production of physical energy. Protein 
is that part of a food material that is rich in nitrogen and is used 
principally to build up muscle or lean meat. Since corn is the 
principal feed for swine in the United States, it is only the nat- 
ural consequence that our hogs are of the fat or lard type. 

2. In the earlier history of the United States, very few, 
if any, of the frontier sections had railroad facilities, so could 
not import fresh meats; neither had they facilities for local 
production of meats. Then again, these places, and especially 
the lumber camps, used a great deal of meat, and it had to be 
of such a nature that it could be hauled long distances on wagons 
and be capable of long storage after reaching its destination. 
The most satisfactory meat for this purpose was mess pork. 
There are two reasons why fat salt pork was better than lean 
salt pork, (a) Fat pork does not become so salty on being 
pickled as does lean pork. It is not so thoroughly penetrated 
by the salt, therefore it is more palatable after long storage 
than is lean pork, which also requires a larger quantity of salt, 
and is not so well preserved as is the fat pork, (b) Fat pork 
was better both from the employer's and the consumer's point 
of view, because on account of its fatty nature, it contains two 
and one-fourth times as much energy per unit of weight as does 
lean pork, therefore making a cheaper article on the bill of fare, 
also furnishing sufficient energy to the laborer who was toiling 
hard in cold winter weather. The following table giving analyses 
and fuel values of a number of common foods shows the high 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 337 

fuel value of pork products. It will also be noticed that the 
foods with the largest fat content have the highest fuel value: 



















Fuel 




Analy- 






Pro- 




Carbo- 




value per 


Foods 


ses 


Refuse 


Water 


tein 


Fat 


hy- 
drate 


Ash 


pound — 
calories* 






Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 








cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 




Lard refined 










100.0 
89.9 






4220 


Back fat — hog . . . 


3 




7.7 


2.3 




.1 


3835 


Salt pork 


6 




7.3 


1.8 


87.2 




3.7 


3715 


Bacon, smoked . . . 


13 


8.1 


17.8 


9.6 


60.2 




4.3 


2720 


Mess beef 


2 


10.5 


33.0 


10.7 


39.9 




5.9 


1885 


Oatmeal 


13 




7.2 


15.6 


7.3 


68.0 
98.0 
70.6 


1.9 

'i.2' 


1860 


Starch 


1825 


Entire wheat flour 


5 




12.1 


14.2 


1.9 


1660 


Corn meal, bolted. 


9 




12.9 


8.9 


2.2 


75.1 


.9 


1655 


Mutton loin, with- 


















out kidney and 


















tallow 


15 


14.2 


40.5 


12.8 


31.9 




.6 


1585 


Bread, white 


108 




35.4 


9.5 


1.2 


52.8 


1.1 


1205 


Beef loin, boneless 


















strip 


6 

28 
4 


20 .2 
13.8 


60.7 
44.9 
50.3 


18.9 
13.6 
15.3 


19.5 
20.6 
19.7 




.9 

.7 
.9 


1175 


Ribs 


1120 


Leg of lamb 


1115 


Round 


44 


8.5 
10.5 
25.0 


63.0 
66.0 
61.5 


18.7 

13.1 

.4 


8.8 

9.5 

.4 


12 .'4' 


1.0 
9. 
.3 


720 


Hens' eggs 


645 


Apples, fresh 


10 


255 


Vegetable soup . . . 


1 




95.7 


2.9 




.5 


.9 


65 



*Heat and muscular work are forms of force or energy. The energy is 
developed as the food is consumed in the body. The unit commonly used in 
this measurement is the calorie, the amount of heat which would raise the 
temperature of a pound of water 4 degrees F. 

3. There was a foreign demand by the poorer classes of 
people for cheaper meats than could be supplied by their high- 
priced bacon industry. This cheaper meat could be supplied 
in the form of fat pork made from low-priced corn, and at the 
same time could be furnished at a profit. 

From these various causes it is clearly evident that the 
fat or lard hog of the United States was produced not only 
because he could be produced more cheaply than the bacon 
hog, but also because there was a demand for just such a hog. 

In the United States the slaughtered swine were 79.8 per 
cent, of the total stock of hogs on hand in 1900, and 76.9 per 
cent, in 1910. In 1910, 233 pounds of pork were produced per 
head of stock of hogs on hand over 33^ months old April 15. 
The importance of swine as meat producers is emphasized by 
these figures. 

Size in market hogs. — Some of the weights of hogs mar- 
keted at Cincinnati in the early days serve to show rather strik- 



338 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

ingly that market hogs, like market cattle, have undergone an 
evolution from immense weights in the early days to the handy- 
weight market animal of the present time. In 1857 the follow- 
ing records of weights were made on the Cincinnati market: 



mber of hogs 


Net weight 


Average per hog 


3 


2,301 


710 


5 


3,200 


640 


7 


5,040 


720 


22 


8,866 


403 


50 


18,750 


375 


52 


19,604 


377 


320 


104,000 


325 


657 


200,355 


305 



1,116 361,846 324 

In 1866 these weights were exceeded as shown in the fol- 
lowing records for that year: 



ber of hogs 


Net weight 


Average per hog 


11 


6,732 


612 


20 


15,452 


772 


30 


15,180 


506 


35 


15,785 


451 


35 


15,712 


449 


43 


15,738 


366 


107 


43,014 


402 


200 


71,800 


359 


346 


139,092 


402 


400 


150,000 


375 



1,227 488,505 398 

Of the lot of twenty included above it was said: "The 
lot of twenty, raised and fed for market in our county (Ham- 
ilton County, Ohio) has certainly no parallel in the wide world, 
none of the hogs exceeding 19 months of age, and generally 
running from 15 to 16 months old." 

Wren and Schaffer of Middletown, Ohio, packed in 1870 
a lot of thirty-eight Poland-China hogs averaging 613 pounds 
gross at 21 months old, all fattened by one man in Butler County. 
Following are records of a large number of hogs (Poland-Chinas) 
raised in Butler County, Ohio, and sold to packers in 1870: 



umber of 


Average gross Number of 


Average gross 


hogs 


weight hogs 


weight 


80 


574 20 


501 


40 


516 45 


536 


38 


570 75 


493 


48 


513 60 


490 


42 


517 40 


713 


40 


504 12 


773 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 339 

There is record of one lot of 80 Poland-Chinas marketed 
in 1870 that averaged gross 384 pounds at eleven months of 
age, while another lot of ten of the same breed and age mar- 
keted in that year averaged 410 pounds gross. 

The immense weights of earlier times were made possible 
by cheap corn, by the premium paid for heavy hogs by packers 
in those days, and by selecting hogs of great weight for breeding 
purposes. During late years the tendency has been to market 
handy-weight hogs, and fewer heavy hogs appear on the market 
each year. This change has been brought about by the high 
price of corn, by improved methods of packing which permit 
hogs of less fatness and lighter weight to find favor with packers, 
by the general tendency on the part of the consumer to favor 
light cuts, and by the growing demand for bacon in place of the 
old-fashioned, heavy, salt meats. The breeder also has played 
a part in this change to the handy-weight market hog, by giving 
preference to hogs of quality and smoothness over those of large 
size and tending toward roughness and lack of quality. In 
recent years some breeds actually deteriorated because of the 
fact that most of the breeders went too far in the matter of 
securing quality and refinement in their animals and failed to 
keep up enough size and constitution to suit the practical hog 
grower. This mistake was realized and today the effort is being 
made to get back on safer ground by breeding for all the size 
possible and yet maintain a proper degree of quality in the 
animal. The ideal hog for the farmer is a medium-weight hog, 
or a hog slightly above what would be called medium weight, 
possessing desirable quality, smoothness, and symmetry. 

Selection of breeding stock. — The points which should re- 
ceive particular attention in selecting hogs for breeding purposes 
are (1) size, (2) feeding capacity, (3) constitution and vigor, 
(4) quick maturity, (5) strength of back, legs, pasterns, and 
feet, (6) quality, (7) breeding qualities, (8) uniformity of type, 
and (9) ancestry. 

1. Under present conditions, the most profitable stage for 
the grower to market lard hogs is between 200 and 275 pounds. 
Nevertheless, hogs used for breeding purposes should have 
plenty of size combined with desirable type and early matur- 
ity. If the breeding stock is of large size, the pigs will be 
growthy and will attain marketable weights in quick time. The 
cheapest gains are made during the growing period. This is 
shown by the following compilation presented by Henry and 



340 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Morrison* which summarizes over 500 American feeding trials 
with more than 2,200 hogs: 

Weight of hogs Pounds feed for 

100 pounds gain 

100—150 pounds 437 pounds 

150—200 pounds 482 pounds 

200—250 pounds 498 pounds 

250 — 300 pounds 511 pounds 

300—350 pounds 535 pounds 

The risk of loss from disease is lessened in marketing younger 
hogs, and the farmer gets a quicker turnover of his capital. 

The most profitable hog is one that inherits the ability to 
grow to large size, but which will fatten if desired long before 
the limit of growth is reached. It is desirable, therefore, to set 
the standard for matured weight as high as is consistent with 
proper form, quick maturity, and quality. For boars in high 
condition, the standard may be set at 800 pounds or over without 
necessarily sacrificing other desirable qualities. Sows in high 
condition should weigh not less than 600 pounds. By proper 
selection and by improved methods of feeding and management, 
these weights may be equalled or surpassed. It is not desirable 
to keep breeding stock in high condition, but the term "breeding 
condition" has such a variable meaning that it cannot be used 
satisfactorily as a basis for weights. In breeding condition, 
boars and sows will weigh considerably less than 800 pounds and 
600 pounds respectively, but they should have enough size of 
frame and capacity for taking on flesh to enable them to reach 
these weights if they were fed to high condition. 

2. Feeding capacity is indicated by length, depth, width, 
and fullness of middle. Some degree of paunchiness may be 
accepted as evidence of feeding capacity. A wide head, promi- 
nent poll, well-developed jaw, a mild eye, and a short neck are 
further indications of a good feeder. 

3. Constitution and vigor are indicated by width and 
depth of chest, a large heart-girth, good spring of rib, large 
feeding capacity, and a strong appetite. A general appearance 
of strength and ruggedness without coarseness, an active walk, 
a bright, open eye, a healthy skin, and abundant, glossy hair 
are other evidences of constitution, thrift, and vigor. 

4. A quick-maturing hog is one that makes a fast growth, 
yet can be fattened off at market weight. Such hogs are ready 



* Feeds and Feeding, p. 569. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



341 



for market in quick time and at low cost. This quality is pos- 
sessed in greatest degree by hogs descended from breeding stock 
of large size that are broad backed, deep, full-made, and not 
too long of body and legs. Some hogs will grow big enough 
and weigh well for their age, but, lacking the proper form, they 
do not fatten readily and cannot be finished at desired market 
weights. 

5. A low back is a bad fault in a breeding animal. It is 
a weakness which is as liable to be transmitted to offspring as 
any other good or bad quality. The boar should stand on 




•T^i. 



Fig. 106. Good Type in the Breeding Boar. 

Chester White boar, Champion at the Iowa State Fair in 1913. Owned 
by Mr. A. B. Somerville, Monroe, la. 

large, strong bone, this being one evidence of masculinity, but 
extremely large, rough bone, covered with a thick, puffy skin is 
undesirable, indicating coarseness. The breeding sow should 
show greater refinement of bone than the boar, yet it should be 
amply sufficient to sustain not only her weight but also the added 
weight imposed by pregnancy and large litters. Fine shank 
bones are not objectionable because they are liable to be frac- 
tured by the weight of the sow, but because extremely fine bone 
is associated with small, weak tendons and ligaments which 
permit the pastern to drop down and the toes to spread apart. 



342 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

thus making the legs weak and greatly lessening the usefulness 
of the animal. Proper feed during the growing period and 
sufficient exercise are other factors which have much to do with 
the strength of feet and legs. Sickled hind legs, bowed-out 
hocks, inbent knees, and other deformities should be avoided, 
particularly in selecting a boar. 

6. A reasonable degree of quality, as indicated by smooth- 
ness of form and flesh and by trimness of appearance, is some- 
thing of an evidence of good breeding and must be shown in 
breeding stock if it is to be shown in their pigs on the market. 
The butcher desires a very high degree of quality and refine- 




Fig. 107. Good Type in the Breeding Sow. 

Hampshire sow, Gloria 2d., Champion at the Iowa State Fair in 1914. 
Owned by Mr. Russell Yates, Palo, la. 

ment in head, ear, hide, hair, bone, and fleshing, but does not 
pay enough premium for it to justify the producer in emphasiz- 
ing quality too strongly. As pointed out near the end of the 
preceding chapter, the value of a hog on the market is deter- 
mined very largely by his weight, without much regard to fat- 
ness and quality. However, a fair degree of quality is char- 
acteristic of the easy-feeding, quick-maturing hog. The breeder 
should select for as much quality in breeding stock as may be 
had without sacrifice of proper size, constitution, and strength 
of bone. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 343 

The skin over the shoulders of mature boars is thicker and 
heavier than on sows or barrows. This character is called the 
shields, and was a highly useful feature in the wild boar as a 
protection in fighting. The wild boar has transmitted this 
character in greater or less degree to his domesticated descend- 
ants. In some instances the thickening and hardening of the 
skin is so great as to produce pronounced callouses, and these 
are objectionable. A smooth shoulder is desired in the boar 
as well as in the sow and barrow. 

7. Great variation in prolificacy exists between individual 
sows of the same breed. There are also some rather marked 
differences between breeds. The number of pigs per litter varies 
from one to sixteen or more, but with good management is 
usually from six to ten and under ordinary farm conditions 
averages about seven or eight. It is well to remember, however, 
that it is the number of pigs raised, rather than the number 
farrowed, which is most important. Sows that are irregular 
breeders, difficult to get in pig, not prolific, poor sucklers, or 
that lie on their pigs should be sent to market. Short-middled 
sows of the chunky type are usually lacking in prolificacy and 
milking qualities. Size, stretch, roominess and a mild disposi- 
tion are essential to good brood sows. Their udders should 
include twelve or more well-developed glands and teats. 

Masculine, vigorous boars are quick and sure breeders. 
Motherly- or matronly-looking sows are the most satisfactory 
breeders and best mothers. 

8. The breeding herd should be kept as uniform in size, 
form, color, and other points as possible in order that the pigs 
may acquire a finish at about the same time and present a uni- 
form and attractive appearance in the feed-lot and on the market. 

9. A good ancestry back of a young boar or sow is the 
best possible guarantee that it will develop into a useful breed- 
ing animal. Between two hogs equal in individuality, one the 
best pig from a poor litter and a poor ancestry, and the other 
the worst pig from a good litter and a good ancestry, there is 
almost certain to be a marked advantage in favor of the latter 
as a breeder. Particularly in selecting boars is it important 
to buy from a good herd, and to select pigs from a large litter, 
a good litter, a good sire, and a good dam. In other words, 
try to get prolific and producing blood, blood that will breed on. 
In breeding for the market, the sows should be purebreds or 
high grades. None other than a good purebred boar should 



344 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

be used on any herd. In hogs, as in other stock, the sire is at 
least half of the herd. 

The sow may be bred when eight months old, farrowing 
her first litter when twelve months old. If well fed and cared 
for, she will raise two litters per year, though many breeders 
believe that better results are obtained if the sow raises one 
litter per year, or at most three litters in two years. The average 
duration of pregnancy in swine is 114 days. Boars eight to 
ten months old may be used on a few sows if they are well de- 
veloped for their age and well fed. A mature boar will breed 
one sow a day, or from thirty to forty sows during the breeding 
season. 

With no other kind of live stock is there practiced so much 
mixing of breeds and cross-breeding as in the breeding of hogs 
for the market. It is very commonly believed that by crossing 
a boar of one breed upon sows of another breed, more vigorous 
and growthy offspring will result. While there is no serious 
criticism to be made against such a method so far as the first 
cross is concerned, it invariably happens that if this policy is 
followed up and further crossing and mixing is resorted to, a 
variety of shapes and colors is presented that is most unattrac- 
tive as compared with a bunch of hogs possessing good uniform- 
ity. In the majority of cases it will be most profitable to pick 
out one of the standard breeds of hogs and stick to that breed 
year after year. If this is done there need be no lack of vigor 
in the offspring if the parent stock is selected with due care as 
to constitution and vigor. 



PART FOUR. 
HORSES. 



INTRODUCTION. 

For centuries the horse has been a faithful servant of man 
in the capacity of a burden bearer. "From remotest ages he 
has come with man, side by side, in the glory and achievements 
of the white race. In all the darings and doings of the Saxon, 
wherever countries were to be conquered, battles fought, and 
the banner of Britain carried round the world, wherever has 
been a footprint, there also was the hoof -beat."* As compared 
with other domesticated animals, the horse is peculiar in his 
relation to man, for he is valuable on account of his ability to 
do work and not because he furnishes a tangible product use- 
ful as food or otherwise. It is his athletic ability which makes 
the horse useful. 

None other of our domestic animals occupies as important 
a place in the economy of things as does the horse; if all the 
horses were suddenly taken from the nations of the world, agri- 
culture, business, and commerce would be seriously impaired 
and we would soon be in a state of famine. Consider the vast 
number of horses in use on farms, on city streets, on country 
roads, in armies, and for numerous pleasure purposes, such as 
riding, driving, racing in harness and under saddle, hunting, 
and polo. We could give up any of the other domesticated 
animals with much less serious results, and this in spite of the 
advent and improvement of the automobile, motor truck, and 
tractor, and their wide use at the present time. 

The horse may be said to be a locomotive which consumes 
hay and grain instead of coal. He is self -feeding, self -con- 
trolling, and self-reproducing, and is at the same time a very 
efficient motor. Farmers who use horses may be compared 
to the engineer who operates a motor. Farmers who breed 
horses may be compared to the manufacturer of motors. No 
man can manufacture or operate a motor with real success 



* John Trotwood Moore, in The Gift of the Grass. 

345 



346 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

unless he understands its construction, the importance of its 
various parts, their strength or weakness, and their relation to 
one another. No man can learn the construction of a motor 
by studying its exterior only; he must take it apart and study 
the various parts, and then put them together again. Then 
he must put it in motion and study the action of the various 
levers, pulleys, and springs, in order that he may know the 
location of weaknesses and at what points the most wear comes. 
Knowing these things, he can manufacture a motor of high 
efficiency, or, operating one, he can obtain from it the greatest 
amount of work with least danger of injuring the machine. 
Hence we see how important is a knowledge of the anatomy of 
the horse as a basis for the study of types of horses and the re- 
quirements and capabilities of each type. 

It is not possible to develop a good judge of any kind of 
live stock by teaching simply what to look for in an animal, 
A mere description of parts or points is not sufficient. The 
student wants to know why certain things are desirable in an 
animal, and why certain other things are undesirable. He 
must know the "why" of each point if he is to value each point 
properly and put emphasis where it belongs. This is especially 
true in learning to judge horses. No matter how carefully the 
points to be looked for in feet and legs are described, the student 
cannot recognize the importance of these parts and know what 
constitutes a first-class foot and leg, unless he has a fairly good 
idea of their anatomy and physiology. In the pages which 
follow, the writer has, therefore, given considerable attention 
to some of the essential features of horse anatomy before enter- 
ing upon a description of the various types and market classes 
of horses. 

Definition of Horse Terms. 

Stallion. — Breeding male. 

Mare. — The female. 

Colt. — A young stallion. 

Filly. — A young mare. 

Foal. — Colt or filly under one year old. 

Weanling. — A weaned foal. 

Gelding. — Unsexed male, castrated under two years old. 
The best age to castrate colts is at one year old after they have 
been on pasture a few weeks but before fly-time. In the corn- 
belt the best time to castrate is the latter part of May. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 347 

Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far 
advanced toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident 
in head and neck. This constitutes coarseness in a horse for 
harness or saddle use. 

Yeld mare. — A marQ that has not raised a foal during the 
season; a dry mare. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
BRIEF ANATOMICAL STUDY OF THE HORSE. 

In all animal life the cell is the structural and functional 
unit. A tissue is a collection of similarly differentiated cells. 
A number of tissues grouped together form an organ. The 
body is an aggregation of organs. We feed a horse to produce 
tissue and to produce energy. The systems of organs are seven 
in number. They are (1) skeletal, (2) muscular, (3) digestive, 
(4) respiratory, (5) genito-urinary, (6) nervous, and (7) integu- 
mentary. 

Skeletal system. — The skeletal system is important as it 
largely determines the conformation of the horse. The skele- 
ton of the horse is composed of a number of bony segments, 
most of which exist in pairs. The divisions of the skeleton 
are (1) head, (2) neck, (3) trunk, and (4) limbs. The head 
consists of numerous bones, mostly flat, united by sutures which 
gradually undergo obliteration with age. The lower jaws are 
strong and in each jaw there are six molar teeth (24 in all). 
Twelve of these are temporary — three in each jaw, and known 
as the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd molars, while the 4th, 5th, and 6th are 
permanent. There are also six incisors in the upper and six 
in the lower jaw, all of which are temporary and are entirely 
replaced by the time the animal is 43^ years old. 

The vertebral column is a chain of 54 to 56 irregular bones 
(vertebrae) extending from skull to end of tail. There are seven 
cervical (neck) vertebrae, 18 dorsal (back), 6 lumbar (loin), 
5 sacral (croup), and 18 or 20 caudal (tail) vertebrae. From 
above, the spinal column exhibits a concave cervical curve, a 
convex dorsal curve, a nearly straight lumbar region, and the 
sacro-caudal curve is concave below. The 3rd, 4th, and 5th 
dorsal vertebnje have the highest spines which form the withers. 

There are 18 pairs of ribs, 8 of which are true and 10 false. 
The 8 true pairs join the 8 segments of the sternum or breast 
bone. The 7th or 8th ribs are longest. There is no collar 
bone (clavicle) as in man, and the fore limbs are not attached 
to the trunk but are connected by intervening muscles. The 
hind limbs are united to the trunk by the pelvic girdle which, 
in reality, is composed of three segments on each side. 

348 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



349 



Muscular system. — The horse comprises a great number 
of systems of levers represented in the bones and joints, each 
supplied with a system of muscles which furnish the power. 
Muscles exert a force in only one way, and that by shortening, 
giving a pull. For this reason muscles are arranged in pairs, 
as illustrated by the biceps and triceps which move the fore- 
arm in man. The flexor muscles are always inside the joint 
and the extensors outside. The theory has been advanced 
that the shortening of muscles is due to a change in the form 
of the muscular cell from an elongated form to one nearly round 




Fig. 108. Skeleton of the Horse. 

This illustration shows the location of the bones and the degree to which 
the skeleton and the muscle influence the form. 



when stimulated by nerve action. Muscles act through very 
short distances and upon the short end of levers composing 
the animal frame. Acting in this way, speed and distance are 
gained with a corresponding reduction in the magnitude of the 
force. Because muscles are able to act only through very 
short distances, it is necessary for them to act upon the short 
end of the levers in order that sufficiently rapid movement may 
be gained. 



350 Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock 

The muscular system obtains its maximum development 
in the horse, and upon the excellence of this, beauty of con- 
formation largely depends. Especially is this latter true of 
the neck and hindquarters. The muscles of the back and loin 
are the largest in the body. There are no muscles below the 
knees and hocks — only their tendinous prolongations. The 
first muscle under the skin almost covers the entire body and is 
the one that enables the animal to shake flies or any irritating 
foreign substance off its skin. 

Digestive system. — The tongue is small as compared with 
that of the ox. The gullet is long and has a very small open- 
ing into the stomach. The capacity of the stomach is small, 
holding between 3 and 4 gallons, while the stomach of the ox 
holds 30 to 40 gallons. But the small size of the organ is com- 
pensated for by the large size and capacity of the intestines 
which hold twice that of the ox. The large intestine has a 
capacity of about 20 gallons, and the small one 12 gallons. The 
liver is large, as are also the kidneys. 

Respiratory system. — The respiratory organs are well 
developed, and comprise the nasal cavities, the larynx, the 
trachea, the bronchial tubes, and lungs. The heart is large and 
four chambered, and the blood vessels are large and have strong, 
thick walls. Thus is the horse well fitted for his athletic life. 

Nervous system. — The nervous system is well developed 
and comprises the brain and" spinal cord. There are 12 pairs 
of nerves which take origin from these structures. 

Integumentary system. — The hair or coat is shed in the 
spring and autumn, except that of the mane and tail which is 
permanent. There are both sweat glands and sebaceous glands 
in the skin, but the former are practically absent from the limbs. 

In judging horses, the judge takes into consideration many 
matters relating to the structure and interior of the animal, 
as well as the exterior. A wide, deep middle and a broad muz- 
zle, for example, indicate great digestive capacity; a large nos- 
tril and large chest show capacity for respiration; a silky coat 
and fine skin are normal qualities of the integument, while 
alertness and gracefulness of movement are evidences of good 
nervous control. 

The horse differs from a mere machine in that he is largely 
capable of guiding his own movements without aid from his 
driver. Training accomplishes much in this regard, but the 
less a horse is possessed of intelligence and nervous control, the 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 351 

less he is automatic as a motor, and the more he becomes de- 
pendent upon his driver. 

Anatomy of the Fore Limb. 

From the top downward, the bones of the fore limb are 
as indicated in the accompanying diagram. The fore limb is 
composed of a scapula (or shoulder blade) which is articulated 
to the humerus (or arm) by a ball-and-socket joint, and the 
arm in turn articulates with the radius by a hinge joint. The 
lower end of the radius rests upon the upper row of the carpal 
bones of which there are 7 or 8 in the horse, corresponding to 
the wrist in man. Below the carpus (knee) is the large meta- 




Fig. 109 Bones of the Fore Leg. 

1, Scapula; 2, humerus; 3, radius and ulna; 4, seven or eight carpal bones; 
5, cannon bone and two splint bones; 6, two sesamoid bones; 7, large pastern 
bone; 8, small pastern bone; 9, navicular bone; 10, coffin bone. 

carpal (or cannon) bone, and articulated with the back of it 
are two slender rods of bones — the small metacarpal (or splint) 
bones. The lower end of the large cannon bone forms a hinge 
with the first phalanx (or large pastern bone), which is followed 
by the second phalanx (or small pastern bone), and then the 
third phalanx (or coffin bone), the two last named being enclosed 
within the hoof. In addition to these, at the articulation be- 
tween the cannon and the large pastern bone are two small 
bones, known as the sesamoids, while at the back of the coffin 
joint there is a small bow-shaped bone, known as the navicular, 
which is frequently the seat of disease. 



352 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The bones are held together by ligaments. Tendons are 
similar in character to ligaments, but differ in that they join 
muscle to bone. 

The scapula, humerus, and radius and ulna are enclosed 
in heavy muscles which move them. There are no muscles 
about the knee and the parts below. Instead, long tendons 
pass down from the muscles above, thus connecting the power 
with the levers of the lower part of the limb. Hence there are 
only bones and tendons below the forearm, together with some 
very important ligaments which hold the bones in proper re- 
lation to one another. These ligaments are very strong elastic 
cords. The lower limb moves when the muscles exert a pull 




Fig. 110. Fore Leg from Knee to Ground. 

Showing the bones, ligaments, and tendons. 1, Suspensory ligament; 
2, inferior sesamoid ligaments; 3, branch of suspensory ligament; 4, flexor 
tendon of foot; 5, flexor tendon of pastern; 6, extensor tendon; 7, splint bone; 
8, cannon bone; 9, sesamoid bones; 10, large pastern bone; 11, small pastern 
bone; 12, coffin bone; 13, navicular bone. 

on their tendons, which are likewise strong and elastic. The 
tendons and ligaments of the fore limb are shown in the ac- 
companying drawing. The long ligament from fetlock to knee 
is the suspensory ligament. It supports the fetlock. 



Anatomy of the Hind Limb. 

The hind limb consists of the femur (or thigh bone) which 
is the largest in the body and articulates below with the tibia 
and also with the patella (or knee cap). The hock is composed 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



353 



of six bones which may be divided into two sets, each having a 
purpose of its own. One group of four small bones (tarsals), 
arranged in two rows and resting on the head of the cannon, 
are united together and to adjacent bones by short, powerful 
ligaments, and so close is the union that the movement of one 
bone upon another is reduced to a sirhple gliding action of very 
limited degree. Though slight, this movement is of much im- 
portance in breaking the jar communicated to this joint when 
the horse is in action. Above the small tarsal bones are two 
larger bones, the astragalus and calcaneus, as shown in Fig. 112. 




Fig. 111. Bones, Tendons, and Ligaments 
of the Fore Leg. 

1, Splint bone; 2, cannon bone; 3, sus- 
pensory ligament; 4, flexor tendon of foot; 
5, flexor tendon of pastern. 



To the calcaneus is attached the strong tendon known as 
the tendon of Achilles. By means of it the muscles above 
exert a powerful pull upon the hock joint, producing extension 
of the joint. This is the principal means of the horse's pro- 
pulsion. The knob-like end of the calcaneus (to which the 
tendon attaches) forms the point of the hock. In some in- 
stances the pull upon the hock has been great enough to pro- 
duce a fracture of this bone. 

Sometimes a diseased condition is brought about by the 
ossification into one mass of some or all of the bones of the hock. 
This is called a bone spavin and is a serious unsoundness because 
it destroys the important gliding action of the tarsals, stiffens 
the joint, and often causes lameness. 



354 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



The parts below the hock are similar in structure to those 
below the knee. 

The skeletons of man and horse compared show striking 
similarity, and at some points rather marked variation and 
difference in proportionment of parts. There are seven or 




Fig. 112. Bones of the Hock. 

A, Tibia; B, calcaneus; C, as- 
tragalus; D, tarsals; E, cannon bone; 
F, splint bone. 



eight bones in the knee of the horse. The horse's knee corre- 
sponds to man's wrist. The bones below the horse's knee cor- 
respond to those beyond man's wrist. Following is a com- 
parison of the bones and parts of the fore and hind limbs of 
the horse with the arm and leg of man: 



Fore Limb of Horse 



Arm of Man 



Parts 


Bones 


Parts 


Bones 


Shoulder 


Scapula 


Shoulder 


Scapula and clavicle 


Arm 


Humerus 


Arm 


Humerus 


Forearm 


Radius and ulna 


Forearm 


Radius and ulna 


Knee 


7 or 8 carpals 


Wrist 


7 carpals 


Cannon 


3 metacarpals 


Palm 


5 metacarpals 
fThumb— 2 bones 


Pastern and foot 


1st, 2nd, and 3rd 


Fingers 


J. Other fingers — 3 
[ bones 




phalanges 




Hoof 




Finger nails 




Hind Limb of Horse 


Leg of Man 


Parts 


Bones 


Parts 


Bones 


Croup 


Ilium, ischium, 


Pelvis 


Ilium, ischium. 




and pubis 




and pubis 


Thigh 


Femur 


Thigh 


Femur 


Stifle 


Patella 


Knee 


Patella 


Gaskin 


Tibia and fibula 


Calf 


Tibia and fibula 


Hock 


6 tarsals 


Ankle 


8 tarsals 


Cannon 


3 metatarsals 


Instep 


5 metatarsals 


Pastern and foot 


1st, 2nd, and 3rd 


Toes 


f Great toe — 2 bones 
\ Other toes — 3 bones 




phalanges 



Hoof 



Toe nails 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 355 



The following drawing makes clear the comparison be- 
tween the hind limb of the horse and the foot of man. 




*=» F E b c 

Fig. 113. Man and Horse Compared. 

Bones of the human foot and hind leg of horse compared. A, Femur; 
B, astragalus; C, calcaneus; D and E, small tarsals; F and G, metatarsals; 
1, 2, and 3, first, second, and third phalanges. 

Anatomy of the Foot. 

The foot is not a mere block of horn, but is a composite 
structure made up of particular parts, each with a certain work 
to perform. There is an old saying, very full of truth, "No 
foot, no horse." A knowledge of the structure of the foot is 
very essential in learning to judge horses. 





Fig. 114. Exterior of the Hoof. 

Showing division into toe, laterals, and quarters. 

The exterior of the foot may be divided into five parts, 
each including one-fifth of the circumference. These are the 
toe, laterals, and quarters. 

From the interior outward, the parts of the foot are the 
coffin bone, lower end of the small pastern bone, navicular bone, 
extensor tendon, flexor tendon, lateral cartilages, plantar cush- 
ion, pododerm or foot-skin, and the hoof. The foot also has its 
blood vessels and nerves. 



356 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



Bones. — The bones of the foot and pastern are four in 
number, three of which — -the long pastern, short pastern, and 
coffin bone — placed end to end form a continuous straight col- 
umn passing downward and forward from the fetlock joint to 
the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular bone, lies 
crosswise in the foot behind the coffin joint, enlarging the joint 
surface. The short pastern projects about 1}4 inches above 
the hoof and extends about an equal distance into it. 

Tendons and ligaments. — The extensor tendon of the toe 
passes down the front of the pastern and attaches to the top and 
front of the coffin bone. The outer branch of the suspensory- 
ligament attaches to the tendon a short distance above this 
point. The flexor tendon of the foot passes 'down between the 




Fig. 115. Diagram Showing Structure of Foot. 

1, Coffin bone; 2, small pastern bone; 3, large pastern bone; 4, navicular 
bone; 5, lateral cartilage; 6, extensor tendon; 7, flexor tendon of foot; 8, flexor 
tendon of pastern; 9, branches of suspensory ligament; 10, wall; 11, sole; 
12, frog; 13, indicates location of plantar cushion between the lateral cartilages; 
14, perioplic ring; 15, coronary cushion. 

heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and 
attaches to the under surface of the coffin bone. The bones of 
the foot are held together by powerful short ligaments. 

Lateral cartilages and plantar cushion. — The elastic tis- 
sues of the foot include the lateral cartilages and the plantar 
cushion. The lateral cartilages are two plates of gristle, one on 
either side of the foot, extending from the wings of the coffin 
bone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an inch 
or more above the edge of the hair, where they may be felt by 
the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and yield 
readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 357 

they may undergo ossification, in which condition they are hard 
and unyielding and are called sidebones. The plantar cushion 
is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic, fibro-fatty tissue fill- 
ing all the space between the lateral cartilages, forming the 
fleshy heels, and serving as a buffer to disperse shocks. It 
extends forward underneath the navicular bone and flexor ten- 
don, and protects these structures from injurious pressure from 
below. 

Pododerm (or foot-skin). — The pododerm or horn-produc 
ing membrane is merely a continuation of the derm, or true 
skin. It covers the foot inside the hoof, just as a sock covers 
the human foot inside the shoe. It differs from the ordinary 
external or "hair" skin in having no sweat or oil glands, but, 
like it, is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. 
The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and 
unite it firmly to the foot. 

The hoof and how it grows. — The horny shell, called the 
hoof, which covers and protects the foot, is made up of three 
parts, (1) the wall and bars, (2) the sole, and (3) the frog. 

Each part of the hoof is grown by some particular part or 
parts of the pododerm. In general it may be said that the 
horn of the hoof is made up of tubules or shafts of horn which 
grow from papillae the same as does hair. These tubules are 
cemented together by non-tubular matter corresponding to 
dandruff exfoliated by the skin. In fact, so pronounced is the 
similarity in growth of horn and hair that coarse hair, especially 
on the legs and coronet, is associated with horn of coarse tex- 
ture. Therefore the more coarse and brittle the hair about 
the coronet, the more porous, brittle, and weak will be the forma- 
tion of the horny hoof. 

The wall horn consists of three layers known as (1) the 
outer or perioplic layer, (2) the middle or coronary layer, and 
(3) the inner or laminous layer. The perioplic layer is very 
thin. It is varnish -like in appearance and forms the surface 
or crust of the wall. Its function is to preserve the moisture 
of the foot and to absorb moisture. A horse working in sand 
or dust usually has this outer layer worn away. The coronary 
layer forms the real basis of the wall. At the heels it is deflected 
forward to form the bars of the hoof. The angle between the 
wall and bar is thickened and is called the buttress. The func- 
tion of the bars is to react against contraction of the heels. 
The inner or laminous layer of the wall horn is not tubular. It 



358 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



is called laminous because it has the appearance of the leaves 
of a book. There are 500 to 600 of these laminse which extend 
from the top of the hoof to the sole. It is less thick than the 
coronary layer, but, like it, is deflected forward at the heels 
to help form the bars. 

Growth of the wall. — At the lower end of the pastern, run- 
ning along the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe 
to the other heel, is a narrow ridge of pododerm, i^ to 3^ of 
an inch wide, called the perioplic ring. It consists of papillae, 
which are microscopic nobs or nodules, and from each papilla 
a shaft of horn grows downward, forming the periople of the 
wall. Like the periople, the coronary layer grows downward 
from a band of pododerm at the top of the hoof. This band is 




Fig. 116. The Parts of the Hoof. 

1, Wall; 2, sole; 3, branch of the 
sole; 4, bar; 5, buttress; 6, frog; 7, 
cleft of the frog; 8, bulbs of the heels. 



called the coronary cushion, and it lies just below and parallel 
to the perioplic ring. At the heels it is deflected forward where 
it produces the horn of the bars. The laminous horn is pro- 
duced by that part of the pododerm known as the fleshy laminae; 
these laminse extend up and down between the coronary cushion 
and the sole. The fleshy laminse of the pododerm and the 
laminous layer of the wall horn dovetail together, thus holding 
the hoof securely to the foot. 

The sole horn is circular in shape except that it is notched 
at the rear where it receives the bars and horny frog. It is 
naturally concave below and is bounded at its edge by the wall 
and bars. It is very brittle, non-elastic, and easily penetrated. 
The sole horn is produced by the fleshy sole, which is that por- 
tion of the pododerm covering the entire under surface of the 
foot excepting the fleshy frog and bars. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 359 

The horny frog does not come in contact with the sole horn 
except at its apex. It is tough, elastic, and rather soft horn. 
The upper part of the homy frog has an elevation or ridge and 
on the bottom there is a corresponding notch or groove. The 
horny frog grows from the fleshy frog, which is that part of 
the pododerm just above the horny frog. 

The preceding discussion of the parts of the hoof and podo- 
derm may be summarized as follows: 

[ Perioplic layer, produced by perioplic ring. 

1. Wall ] Coronary layer, produced by coronary cushion. 

[Laminous layer, produced by fleshy laminae. 

2. Sole, produced by fleshy sole. 

3. Frog, produced by fleshy frog. 

All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward v- ^h 
equal rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upcM 
the amount of blood supplied to the pododerm. Abundant and 
regular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of 
the hoof, going barefoot, plenty of good food, and at proper 
intervals removing the over-growth of the hoof and regulating 
the bearing surface — all these, by increasing the volume and 
improving the quality of blood flowing into the pododerm, favor 
the rapid growth of horn of good quality. Lack of exercise, 
dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof hinder 
growth. The average rate of growth of the hoof is about one- 
third of an inch a month. Irregular growth often occurs. This 
is almost always due to an improper distribution of the body 
weight over the hoof, — that is, an unbalanced foot. One auth- 
ority on this subject says: — "If breeders were more generally 
cognizant of the power of overgrown and unbalanced hoofs 
to divert the lower bones of young legs from their proper direc- 
tion, we might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, splay-footed, 
pigeon-toed, cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses." 

Characteristics of a healthy foot.— A healthy foot is equally 
warm at all parts, and is not tender under pressure with the 
hands. The coronet is soft and elastic at all points and does 
not project beyond the surface of the wall. The wall is straight 
from coronet to ground, so that a straight-edge laid against 
the wall from coronet to ground parallel to the direction of the 
horn tubules will touch at every point. The wall should be 
covered with the outer varnish-like layer of horn called the 
periople, and should show no cracks or clefts. Every hoof shows 
"ring formation," but the rings should not be strongly marked 



360 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

and should always run parallel to the coronet. Strongly marked 
rings are evidence of a weak hoof, but when limited to a part of 
the wall are evidence of previous local inflammation. The 
bulbs of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. 
The sole should be well hollowed out, the frog well developed, 
the cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the spaces between the 
bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars straight from buttress 
toward the point of the frog, and the buttresses themselves so 
far apart as not to press against the frog. A hoof cannot be 
considered healthy if it presents reddish, discolored horn, cracks 
in the wall, bars, or frog, thrush of the frog, contraction or dis- 
placement of the heels. The lateral cartilages should yield 
readily to finger pressure. Some horsemen object to a white 
hoof, believing it to be less durable, but a white hoof is as good 
as a dark-colored one. Horn of good quality is fine grained 
and tough, while poor horn is coarse grained and either too 
mellow and friable or hard and brittle. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

SOME IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING THE HORSE. 

Base of support. — The horse's legs are his base of support, 
just as the table legs support the table. The longer the legs, 
the less stable the base of support. The smaller the base of 
support, the less stable it will be. The less stable the base of 
support, the greater the speed of the horse; while the greater 
the stability, the greater the power for draft. The base of 



v«rtcbrol spme 



Suspending 




long postern 

short pastern 

'^hn bo 

Fig. 117. Attachment of Fore Leg to Body. 

Cross-section through chest, showing the bones of the fore leg and the 
muscular attachment of leg to body. 

support of any object will be most stable when it comes directly 
beneath the center of weight. In horses the center of weight 
is far forward, lying immediately behind the shoulders. Thus 
the fore legs support much more of the weight of the horse than 
do the hind legs, in fact it is the function of the forequarters to 
support, and of the hindquarters to propel. This is the more 
clearly shown when we examine the anatomy of the horse, for 
we find that the hind legs are attached to the trunk by the strong 
ball-and-socket joint, while the fore legs are not directly attached 

361 



362 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

to the trunk but are connected by intervening muscles which 
form a sort of sling which suspends the body between the two 
fore legs. The muscle attaching the fore limb to the trunk is 
called the serratus magnus. It is an enormous triangular muscle 
which originates on the upper part of the internal surface of the 
shoulder blade and spreads out like a fan on the sides of the 
chest and neck and ends on the cervical vertebrae and first eight 
or nine ribs. The drawing presented herewith shows a front 
view of the muscular attachment of the scapula to the neck 
and trunk. 

When the horse is standing, the base of support is rep- 
resented by a rectangle the corners of which are the horse's 
feet. In the walk, the base of support is triangular, for then 
only three feet touch the ground. In the trot or pace, only 
two feet touch the ground, and the base of support will be rep- 
resented by a line. In the run or gallop, the base of support 
is a point. Thus as speed increases there is a corresponding 
decrease in stability. 

The horse in motion. — We have seen that the horse is 
rather unstable because the center of weight lies almost over 
the fore legs. Hence the fore legs answer the purpose simply 
of a support to the horse's weight when he is in motion. If we 
could replace the fore legs with a wheel, we would have an equally 
efficient motor. 

When a man walks, he leans forward in order to throw 
the center of his weight ahead of his base of support. This 
causes him to begin to fall forward, and indeed he would fall 
if he did not advance his foot and so bring his base of support 
once more under, or nearly under, the center of weight. Walk- 
ing is simply a succession of interrupted falls. The same is 
true of the horse. In walking he pushes backward against the 
ground with his hind feet and causes his center of weight to 
tip forward. The result is that he begins to fall, and if he did 
not advance a fore foot he would land on his head. By step- 
ping forward he again assumes his equilibrium and immediately 
tips his weight forward again by propelling with his hind legs. 
Walking is simply the repetition of this performance over and 
over again. 

In the trot and the gallop or run, there is the same backward 
thrust with the hind feet and the same recovery with the fore feet, 
but the thrust is much greater, the stride is longer, and the 
shock and effort in the recovery are increased in proportion. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 363 

In 1897, Tod Sloan, a famous American jockey, went to 
England to ride. He practiced the same seat which all Amer- 
ican jockeys use and with which all Americans are familiar. 
Its peculiar feature is that the jockey sits as far forward on the 
horse as possible. When Sloan appeared on English race courses 
he was severely ridiculed, for at that time English jockeys were 
not familiar with our methods and it was thought Sloan was 
trying to attract attention to himself by adopting a ridiculous 
position on his horse. Race-going people laughed at him until 
it was noticed that he was enjoying unusual success at winning 
races. Sloan rode twenty winners during his first season in 
England, forty-three the next, and in 1899 he was first past 
the post with no fewer than one hundred and eight horses. In 
the same year, two other Americans, the brothers Lester and 
Johnny Reiff, also had eighty-two victories to their credit. The 
methods of these American jockeys were soon copied by most 
of the English riders, but the Americans continued to pile up 
a remarkable record of successes, culminating in three successive 
Derby triumphs — Lester Reiff' s in 1901, Martin's in 1902, and 
Maher's in 1903. During eight years ending in 1905, the eight 
or nine American jockeys who appeared in England for one or 
more seasons divided among them, in retainers, winning fees, 
and etceteras, fully a million dollars. Their work made a new 
chapter in English turf history. 

No sooner had Sloan shown ability to win consistently 
than people began trying to find out the secret of his success. 
They could see that he carried himself as far forward on his 
horse as possible, and so these questions arose: — Does a man 
seated near the neck of a horse enable the animal to travel faster 
than one seated near the tail? If so, why? As for the first 
question, Sloan gave it a practical answer by his consistent 
winnings. The second question was also finally answered. 

A horse to move forward at all must thrust at the earth, 
and the chief force of this thrust comes from his hind legs. If 
the center of weight of horse and rider is just over, or close to, 
the thrusting power, naturally it diminishes the efficiency for 
speed, for instead of thrusting the horse forward, a large portion 
of the muscular energy is wasted in lifting the weight of the 
jockey at every stride. The drawing below and the words 
which follow will make this clear. 

The farther forward the center of weight is, the longer is 
the line from hind foot to center of weight, called the line of 



364 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

thrust, and the more nearly will this line approach the horizontal. 
As a horse has to raise himself vertically with each bound, it 
is naturally a matter of very great importance whether he has 
to lift a dead weight or a weight which throws forward. A 
jockey on the horse's neck adds to the forward weight, and this 
moves the center of weight still further forward and places still 
more weight on the fore legs and equally less on the hind legs. 
The longer the angle of thrust, the easier and therefore the 
faster the horse will go, for his power will then be utilized almost 
exclusively in a horizontal thrust resulting in speed, and little 
of his energy will be consumed in simply raising weight to let 
it fall again. It is the same as a man pushing a wheelbarrow; 




c 



Fig. 118. The Horse in Motion. 

A, Center of weight; AB, line of thrust; ABC, angle of thrust; Y, center 
of weight when rider is over neck of horse; X, center of weight when rider 
sits near the tail. 

if the load is near the handles it must be raised at each step, 
while if the load is over or near the wheel the man does not 
expend so much energy in a lift at each step, but can use all 
his force at pushing straight ahead. 

Where the wear comes. — From what has been said con- 
cerning the function of the fore legs in supporting most of the 
horse's weight, we can readily understand that the horse is 
more apt to tire, exhaust, and ruin his fore legs than his hind 
ones. It is common to see men driving their horses at speed 
when going down hill, thinking that the horse is doing little 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ' 365 

or nothing because the vehicle follows without having to be 
pulled. This is a decided error, for in going down hill still 
more weight is thrown on the fore legs, and if the animal is made 
to descend at speed he hammers his fore legs severely, and often 
stumbles and falls. Because of the hammering to which the 
fore legs and feet of the horse are subjected, and because of the 
great strain coming upon the hock joint due to its prominent 
part in propulsion, the feet and legs constitute a most vital part 
in every type of horse, and special attention should be given to 
front feet, front pasterns, the hocks, and the set or position 
of the hind legs when judging. 

Hoof mechanism. — When the horse places his foot on the 
ground, expansion occurs, especially at the heels When the 
foot is raised there is contraction. The plantar cushion, being 
soft, transmits force or motion in all directions more or less 
equally (as a liquid). It cannot move downward to any great 
degree, hence it spreads or diffuses laterally, and so the heels 
expand. When the horse places his foot on the ground there 
occurs: — (1) Contraction of the hoof at the toe-wall coronet; 
(2) sinking of the sole, especially at its branches; (3) expansion 
of the heels; (4) sinking of the bulbs of the heels. These four 
movements constitute what is known as the "hoof mechanism." 
The health of the foot is dependent on the normal and free hoof 
mechanism, and it should not be hindered by improper shoeing 
or other causes. Hoof mechanism breaks concussion and assists 
circulation. Concussion is shock and counter-shock. These 
shocks must be diffused, and this is cared for laterally in the 
foot bj^ its changes in form. 

Absorption of concussion. — Every step at the walk or trot 
means a big concussion between the ground and the front foot 
of the horse. Were it not for certain arrangements for the 
absorption of this shock or jar, the horse would soon be made 
worthless. Hoof mechanism is, as we have seen, one of the 
means of scattering the shock, acting in much the same way 
as a pneumatic tire on a vehicle. Another safe-guard is found 
in a sloping pastern, which acts in much the same manner as 
the spring under a carriage. Then there is the angle between 
humerus and forearm, and also between scapula and humerus, 
which also act as springs. A sloping shoulder is useful in the 
same way. 

If you have ever ridden in a farm wagon over a rough road, 
standing on your heels, you can appreciate the tremendous wear 



366 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



which comes on the legs of a horse with poor feet, straight pas- 
terns, and straight shoulders. Then if you shifted your weight 
to your toes and bent your knees slightly, you found that your 
teeth stopped chattering, and your hat remained on your head. 




Fig. 119. Front View of Fore Legs. 

A vertical line downward from the point of the shoulder should fall upon 
the center of the knee, cannon, pastern, and foot. A, Ideal position; B, toes 
out; C, bow legged; D, narrow chested and toes out; E, stands close; F, knock 
kneed; G, pigeon toed. 

In other words, your change in position changed the column of 
bones supporting your weight from a straight, vertical column 
to a broken one with angles which acted as springs and absorbed 
the jar. It is just so with a horse having good feet and nicely 
sloping shoulders and pasterns. 




Fig. 120. Side View of Fore Legs. 

A vertical line downward from the center of the elbow joint should fall 
upon the center of the knee and fetlock joints and meet the ground back of 
the heel. A, Ideal position; B, camped under; C, camped out; D, knee sprung; 
E, calf kneed. 

Defective conformations of the legs and effects on action. — 

A line around the hoof on the ground gives the area of the base 
of support of that leg. If the center of the base of support of 
the leg is not directly under the center of the weight falling on 
that leg, the side of the foot nearest the point directly under 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



367 



the center of weight will be compelled to do more than its share 
of the work. Therefore the leg of the horse should be so set 
that the center of the base of support comes directly under the 
center of the weight it bears. The fore legs should be so placed 






Fig. 121. Side View of Hind Legs. 

A vertical line downward from the point of the buttock should touch the 
rear'edge of the cannon from hock to fetlock and meet the ground some little 
distance behind the heel. A, Ideal position; B, stands under; C, camped out; 
D, hind leg too straight. 

under the body that, when viewed from in front, a perpendicular 
line dropped from the point of the shoulder will divide the leg 
and foot into lateral halves. When viewed from the side, a 
perpendicular line dropped from the middle of the forearm 
where it joins the body should divide the leg from body to fet- 




Fig. 122. Rear View of Hind Legs. 

A vertical line downward from the point of the buttock should fall upon 
the center of the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. A, Ideal position; B, 
stands wide; C, bow legged; D, stands close; E, cow hocked. 

lock into lateral halves and strike the ground just back of the 
heel. 

When the horse assumes his natural position, the hind 
legs should be so placed that, when viewed from the rear, a per- 
pendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock will divide 



368 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



the leg and foot into lateral halves; and when viewed from 
the side, this line should touch the rear edge of the cannon from 
hock point to fetlock and meet the ground some little distance 
back of the heel. 

The direction and slope of the axis of pastern and foot 
are very important. When the leg is viewed from the front 
or side, the axis of the pastern and the axis of the foot should 
be identical. As viewed from the front, the toe should point 
directly forward. This insures an even distribution of weight 
to both sides of the foot and also trueness of action. As viewed 
from the side, the axis of the front pastern and foot should 
meet the ground at an angle of about 45 degrees. This angle 
affords the best combination of strength and springiness. 






Id;al 




Fig. 123. Defects in Fore Legs and Their Effect on Action. . 

When moving toward or from you, the feet of the horse 
should appear to have only one motion, which should be verti- 
cally up and down. This is very essential in every type of 
horse. Height of action in any type should be great enough 
to clear the ground by a reasonable distance, so as to prevent 
stumbling and insure length of stride. The carriage horse is 
required to go higher than this for reasons which will be ex- 
plained in connection with the description of that type. The 
essentials of good action are (1) straight line action, (2) long 
stride, and (3) foot should be picked up with snap. Defects 
in conformation and placing of feet and legs result in defects 
in action. Only when the legs are correctly proportioned and 
properly placed can good action result. Correctness of action 
depends also upon temperament, strength of muscling, height 
over withers as compared with height over hips, and general 
symmetry and proportionment of parts. The most common 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 369 

defects in the shape and position of the legs are shown in the 
accompanying drawings. 

A horse that is "base wide" or "toe wide" in front, swings 
the leg inward when in action. A "base narrow" or "toe nar- 
row" conformation results in the horse swinging his feet out- 
ward, or "paddling" as it is called. (See accompanying draw- 
ings.) Horses that naturally stand wide at the hocks will travel 
the same way (wide), which is very undesirable. When the 
hind legs are bowed outward, the hocks spread still further 
outward when the stress comes upon them in action, and usually 
the foot leaves the ground with a twisting motion which wears 
out shoes and is otherwise undesirable. Any deviation from 
trueness in the flight of the foot wastes energy, detracts from 
the appearance of the horse in action, and the horse may strike 
himself, called interfering, which often causes blemishes, lame- 
ness, and stumbling. 

Viewed from the side, a nicely sloping foot and pastern 
leave the ground easily and describe the arc of a circle at every 
step. Straight or stubby pasterns and feet result in a short, 
stubby way of going that is stilted and non-elastic. A too- 
sloping pastern and foot are not nicely carried, but are brought 
out straight to a point in front and then slapped upon the ground. 
(See accompanjning drawings.) Other defects of action will be 
discussed in connection with the various types of horses. 

Bent or sickle hocks. — This defect is often difficult for 
beginners to detect. It is often possible to pose a horse so as 
to hide this fault unless one knows exactly how to detect it 
under all conditions. When a horse with a sickle hock stands 
in a natural position, the defect is easily seen. A vertical lin6 
downward from the point of the buttock may then touch the 
point of the hock, but below that point the cannon slopes for- 
ward instead of following the vertical line, and the hind foot is 
placed too far forward. (See B in Fig. 124, and note that 
this is not the same defect as B in Fig. 121.) Some horses are 
very slightly sickled and some are very crooked indeed. Such 
a conformation is decidedly objectionable because bent hocks 
are not as stout as straight hocks at a hard pull or at work of 
any kind, and furthermore the crooked shape of the hock and leg 
brings an added strain on the hock joint. The sickle hock often 
develops a curb, and is also subject to other unsoundnesses. 

In showing horses, it is common to stretch them out on their 
legs to a slight extent, so as to raise the head and neck, level 



370 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



up the croup, and increase the slope of the front pasterns. A 
horse in such a position is more apt to hold it than a horse stand- 
ing naturally, and for all these reasons it is practiced by horse- 
men. It also has the advantage of covering up defects in the 
set of the legs, particularly a sickle hock. If a horse with sickle 
hocks is stretched or "camped out" a bit, his hind cannons 
become vertical, and the novice is likely to overlook the fact 
that the line of his cannons, even though it is vertical, points 
back of his buttock, often to a considerable degree. (See C 
in accompanying drawings, and note that this is not the same 
as C in Fig. 121.) It is only by noting carefully the direction 
of the lines indicated in the accompanying drawings that one 
can detect this fault. 




Fig. 124. Sickle Hock. 

A, Hind leg of a horse of correct conformation; B and C, two positions 
of the hind leg of a horse with a sickle hock; B, in a position easily exposing 
the defect; C, in a position in which the defect is not so apparent. 

Determination of age from the teeth. — The age of the horse 
is easily determined up to and including the fifth year by an 
examination of the incisor teeth, of which there are three pairs 
in the upper jaw and three pairs in the lower. All of these 
incisors are temporary or milk teeth up to two years of age. At 
birth none of the temporary teeth have cut the gums, but at 
one year they have all appeared and the middle and intermediate 
pairs are in wear, but the corner pairs are not fully in wear. 
At two years, all of the temporary teeth are in wear. At ^3^ 
to 3 years, the middle pair above and below are shed, and are 
replaced by permanent incisors. These are broader, heavier 
teeth, and have a rather rough or corrugated surface, whereas 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 371 

the surface of the milk teeth is smooth. At 3\'2 io U years, 
the intermediate pair of permanent incisors appears in each 
jaw. Kt Ji.}/^ to 5 years, the corner pair of milk teeth above 
and below are displaced by permanents, and the horse may 
be said to have reached maturity. 

After five years the age is not so easily determined, nor 
are the indications so accurate. We rely mostly upon changes 
in appearance shown by the wearing surfaces of the teeth to 
tell us the age beyond five years. The wearing surface of new 
permanent teeth has a long, narrow cup or depression running 
across it transversely. The rims of these cups disappear through 
wear, leaving two distinct rings of enamel, one around the margin 
of the tooth, and the other around the cup. With wear, the 
cup becomes smaller, more oval or rounding in shape, and more 
shallow, until it is finally worn almost completely away. Con- 
tinued wear exposes the tip of the pulp canal or cavity in the 
center of the tooth, and the exposed tip of this canal appears 
between what is left of the cup and the front of the tooth. The 
exposed pulp cavity is called the dental star. 

At six years, the middle pair in the lower jaw are usually 
worn level and the wearing surface tends to become oval in form. 
The central ring of enamel is plainly evident, but is smaller 
than at five years, indicating considerable wear. The lower 
corner teeth, which at five years showed little or no wear, now 
usually show wear, the edge surrounding the cup being much 
less sharp and shell-like. The canine teeth, which first ap- 
peared at four years are now completely out. At seven years, 
the lower intermediates are also levelled on the wearing surface 
and the ring of central enamel becomes wider from before back- 
ward, and shorter from side to side. A hook or swallow tail 
is often present on the upper corner teeth because they are 
broader than the lower corners and do not wear down evenly. 
At eight years, all the lower teeth are levelled and the dental 
star appears upon the center and intermediate pairs, showing 
between the front border of the tooth and the front border of 
the central enamel. 

At nine years, the hook or swallow tail on the upper corners 
has often disappeared. The lower centers are round; their 
central enamel has a triangular form; and their dental star is 
narrower and more distinct. The center pair of the upper jaw 
are usually levelled. At ten years, the changes previously men- 
tioned become more marked, and the upper intermediates are 



372 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

usually levelled. At eleven years, the central enamel of the 
upper comer teeth becomes elliptical and tends to disappear. 
The lower teeth now show much wear, the central enamel forms 
a small ring only, very close to the back border of the tooth, 
while the dental star becomes narrower and also approaches 
the back border. At twelve years, all of the lower teeth are 
round, and sometimes the central enamel has disappeared, in 
which case the wearing surfaces show only a small yellowish 
spot which is the dental star. At fifteen years, the swallow 
tail, which reappeared at ten years, is still in evidence, the teeth 
tend strongly toward a triangular shape on the wearing surface, 
and other indications of age become marked. At twenty-one 
years, the swallow tail is gone again, and all indications of wear 
are very marked. After ten or eleven years and on up to thirty 
or more, only general indications serve as a guide to the age. 
The horseman knows that the teeth change from oval to three- 
sided with age, and that they project or slant forward more and 
more each year. In very old horses these features are very 
marked. 

In determining the age, a regular procedure should be fol- 
lowed. First open the lips and determine whether the teeth 
are temporary or permanent. Unless they are all permanent 
it is usually unnecessary to open the mouth. If they are all 
permanent, the wearing surfaces of the lower incisors should be 
carefully examined first, and then the wearing surfaces of the 
upper incisors. Also note the profile or slant of the teeth, and 
the presence or absence of the hook or swallow tail on the upper 
comer teeth. 

Mere description here will not enable the student to be- 
come adept at determining age. Actual practice and the study 
of many mouths are necessary in order to master this subject. 

Determination of the height of horses. — The height of a 
horse is determined by measuring the vertical distance from 
the highest part of his withers to the ground. The unit in which 
the height of horses is expressed is the hand. A hand is four 
inches. A horse measuring 60 inches high is thus said to be 
15 hands high; a horse measuring 63 inches is said to be "fifteen, 
three," meaning 15 hands, three inches, written 15-3; and one 
measuring 65 inches is 16-1 hands high. The dividing line in 
height between horses and ponies cannot be definitely fixed, 
but is about 14 hands. Ponies vary in height from 14 hands 
down to 8 hands or even less, while horses vary from 14 hands 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 373 

up to 18 hands and over. With practice the height of horses 
may be estimated very closely without the aid of a measuring 
standard. A person who knows the exact height from the 
ground to the level of his eyes, and also the exact height from 
the ground to his chin, can step up to the shoulder of a horse, 
locate the highest bony part of the withers, and estimate the 
height very easily. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 
ORIGIN OF THE TYPES OF HORSES. 

The history of the horse dates back to 4000 B. C. Sev- 
eral wild species existed in Europe and Asia from very remote 
times, but it was in Asia Minor and Egypt that the horse was 
first domesticated and made to serve man. He was taken 
thence to Greece, Rome, and Arabia; thence to more remote 
parts of Europe and Asia, particularly to Spain, France, and 
England; and thence to America and Australia. 

For a long time the horses used by the early European 
tribes and nations were small, semi-wild animals, and no effort 
was made to improve them by breeding. They were simply 
native wild horses, captured, tamed, and put to use, and their 
size and strength was not great enough to permit them to be 
ridden. They were used principally in warfare, harnessed to 
chariots. However, there were horses of black color and much 
greater size and weight native to the region in Western Europe 
now called Flanders, and these were taken south and east, just 
as the horses of Asia Minor and Egypt were taken north and 
west. The infusion of the blood of this large Flemish horse 
increased the size of European horses and made them suitable 
for riding and other purposes. Better feed and care also con- 
tributed to this result. 

The development and progress of the horse was parallel 
with the development of civilization and a prominent factor 
in it. The horse was first used for military purposes; next, 
in ceremonies, both religious and civil; third, in the agricul- 
tural and commercial pursuits of nations; fourth, in connection 
with the pastimes and sports of nations. 

First saddle horse. — The Arabian horse was the first breed 
of live stock developed by man. This horse is a saddle type 
and was developed by the nomadic tribes of the desert for use 
in warfare. The exact origin is unknown, but the great age 
of the breed is shown by a legend which says that it is descended 
from five mares in the stud of King Solomon. It seems to have 
descended directly from the wild Libyan horse native to Northern 
Africa — most excellent of all known wild varieties of the horse. 
The Arabian has for centuries possessed such equisite quality, 

374 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 375 

refinement, intelligence, spirit, docility, and beauty as to make 
him universally admired and famous. He was taken to Eng- 
land at the close of the seventeenth century and was used in 
founding the English Thoroughbred and also the Norfolk Trotter 
which later became the Hackney. In Russia he helped pro- 
duce the Orloff Trotter, and the Percheron breed of France is 
also thought to owe some of its excellence to Arab blood in its 
foundation. Inasmuch as the Yorkshire Coach Horse, Cleve- 
land Bay, American Trotting Horse, American Saddle Horse, 
and the Morgan are all sprung largely from the Thoroughbred, 
every breed of light horses carries the blood of the Arab in greater 
or less degree. 

Turk, Barb, and Spanish horses. — The Turk, or Turkish 
horse, found in portions of European Turkey, but principally 
in Asia Minor, was of considerable importance in the seven- 
teenth century, but it has deteriorated very much since then. 
The Barb is a native of the Barbary States, whence its name. 
It is found in its greatest perfection among the Moors, who 
introduced the Barb blood into Spain during their rule in that 
country, and so improved the Spanish horse that for several 
centuries it occupied the first place throughout Europe. Span- 
ish horses of this stock brought to America by the Spaniards 
are regarded as the progenitors of the wild horses once com- 
mon to Mexico and California. 

Origin of the running horse. — In later times, England be- 
came the center of horse breeding and the nursery of most of 
the present-day breeds. One of the first types of horses de- 
veloped in England was the running horse, the sport of racing 
having been fostered there from an early date. Long before 
an Arabian, Barb, or Turk stallion set foot on English soil, 
a strain of running horses of considerable excellence had been 
developed, hence the Oriental stallions which were later im- 
ported cannot be given more than half the credit for founding 
the running horse or Thoroughbred. The Thoroughbred owes, 
his origin jointly to the native running mares of England and 
to the Arabian, Barb, and Turk stallions imported at the close 
of the seventeenth century. 

The Great Horse or War Horse. — The first type of Eng- 
lish horse was the "Great Horse" or "War Horse" used during 
the Crusades and up to about the year 1600 to carry the war- 
riors clad in their suits of heavy armor. A knight in heavy 
armor, together with the armor for his horse, weighed about 



376 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

400 pounds, hence the necessity for a big, strong horse. The 
native English horse was small, and in order to increase the 
size and strength, Flemish stallions were imported from Nor- 
mandy, and for nearly 500 years English breeders centered 
their attention on the matter of size. With the appearance of 
gunpowder and firearms in warfare, armor was made useless 
and the heavy war horse gave way to much lighter animals 
with more speed. 

Origin of draft type. — When displaced in warfare, the 
ponderous war horse did not become extinct, but was put to 
work at tilling the soil. Prior to this, field labor had been per- 
formed solely by oxen, and the ox continued in use as a draft 
animal even after horses were introduced for farm work. The 
war horse thus became an agricultural horse and in time was 
utilized as the foundation of the British draft breeds — the Shire 
and Clydesdale — just as the Percheron breed was built up from 
the heavy diligence horses used in France in the early days 
when roads were deep in mud. The railroad later displaced 
the diligence horse and he found a place on the farm. When a 
demand arose from cities for a horse suited to moving heavy 
freight through the streets, these agricultural horses in Eng- 
land, Scotland, France, and Belgium were bred larger, heavier, 
and better to meet the new demand, and thus originated the 
draft breeds as we know them today — Shire, Clydesdale, Perch- 
eron, and Belgian. This occurred in the first part of the 
nineteenth century. 

The hunter. — Fox hunting in England dates back to early 
times, and there has long existed a demand for a type of horse 
specially adapted to this sport. Strange to say, no breed of 
hunters has ever been developed, the demand being supplied 
by Thoroughbreds and grade Thoroughbreds showing the hunter 
type. 

The carriage horse. — The modern type of carriage horse 
originated less than fifty years ago. Prior to this, there was 
a succession of types dating from the time the most primitive 
carriages came into use centuries ago. Hence the term car- 
riage horse may be used in a restricted sense or in a broad general 
sense, and the carriage horse may be said to be an ancient type 
or a modern one, according as the term is used. The primitive 
carriage horse was a semi- wild pony, and he was harnessed to 
a couple of long poles, fixed at one end to the pony's neck, the 
other end dragging on the ground beneath the load. Next in 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 377 

the evolution of the modern carriage came the sledge, and later 
came a sledge mounted on rollers. In time the rollers were im- 
proved to the present form of an axle and wheels. All this was 
before the Christian era. Centuries more elapsed before any- 
thing deserving the name of carriage was built. 

Carriages were first used by the nobility of England about 
the beginning of the thirteenth century, but the roads were so 
bad and the vehicles so heavy that they were of little service 
until the end of the sixteenth century. The first coaches in 
England and America were objected to because they were said 
to obstruct the narrow ways, impede traffic, and endanger foot 
passengers. It was about 1660 that the present custom of driving 
for pleasure and show in Hyde Park, London, was established. 
But it was not until more recent times that driving became a real 
pleasure, for carriage springs were not invented until about 1665 
and in their first form appear to have been crude and inefficient. 
Toward the middle of the eighteenth century, great and rapid 
improvement was begun in highways, vehicles, and horses, so 
that the the rate of travel was increased from 4 or 5 to 12 miles 
per hour. Then came the railway, displacing the road coach 
and consigning the carriage horse to the realm of pastime and 
pleasure exclusively. 

The first English carriage horse was the old black cart 
horse, or shire horse as he was called, heavy, ungainly, with 
a big head and shaggy fetlocks. He was descended from the 
old-time war horse, and hence was of Flemish blood. They 
were so slow that the footmen could easily go ahead when nec- 
essary and engage lodging at the next inn. As highways were 
improved and carriages made lighter, the cart horse was crossed 
with the Thoroughbred in order to secure lighter and faster 
animals for carriage use. In this way originated the Cleveland 
Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse — two breeds of heavy carriage 
horses. 

The carriage horse as we know him today is comparatively 
a new type in both Europe and America. He is a medium- 
sized animal with outstanding beauty and attractiveness in 
both form and action. The demand for such a horse did not 
arise until city streets were improved and carriages made elegant 
and comfortable, so that driving became a pleasure rather than 
a painful necessity. Increase in wealth during the past half- 
century and the creation of a larger leisure class of people also 
helped to create a demand for this special type of horse. From 



378 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

what was called the Norfolk Trotter, which was a fast-trot- 
ting, plain, serviceable, moderate-sized horse formerly used 
by English farmers as a road horse (and used by them under 
saddle), there was developed in England the Hackney, which 
is today the foremost breed of carriage horses. The Norfolk 
Trotter originated at about the same time as the Thorough- 
bred, being the result of crossing Arabian and other Oriental 
sires on mares showing aptitude for the trotting gait, just as 
the Thoroughbred resulted from the crossing of these same 
sires on native running mares of proven ability on the turf. 
Although the Hackney is the only true breed of carriage horses, 
other breeds not infrequently produce individuals of this type 
which help to supply the demand. 

The polo pony. — The game of polo was introduced into 
England in 1874, and to America two years later. This sport 
calls for an active, rugged pony of about 14-2 hands, and those 
which best serve the purpose are small-sized or dwarf Thor- 
oughbred horses. A breed of polo ponies is now being developed 
in England. 

The horse in America. — From an equine standpoint, his- 
tory repeats itself to a considerable degree in America and also 
records the creation of at least two new and distinct types of 
horses. There were no horses on this continent at the time of 
its discovery, hence American horse history dates from 1492. 
The first horses were brought to this continent by Cortes and 
Ferdinand De Soto. Cortes used but few horses in his con- 
quest of Mexico, some of which undoubtedly became the pro- 
genitors of the wild horse of the western plains. Similarly, 
horses abandoned by De Soto near the Texas border no doubt 
survived and were the principal foundation of the American 
wild horse. 

In colonial times, the most common type of horse was a 
small saddle horse measuring not more than 14 hands. These 
were the descendants of the small, unimproved European horses 
brought over by the first settlers and were of no particular breed 
or breeding. This little colonial saddle horse was indispensable 
as a utility animal, being practically the sole means of trans- 
portation in those early times. He was likewise a source of 
amusement and recreation, being used in running matches of 
short distances. For this latter purpose, however, the little 
saddler soon gave way to the English Thoroughbred imported quite 
extensively by the early settlers of the Carolinas and Virginia. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 379 

Field labor was performed by oxen, except in Pennsyl- 
vania and New York where Flemish horses had been intro- 
duced from Holland. This Flemish horse was, as we have al- 
ready seen, a large and rather ungainly animal, and when the 
colonies expanded westward, this horse was used to haul freight 
over the mountains from eastern ports to Pittsburg and Wheel- 
ing. It required 12,000 wagons annually, each pulled by four 
or six horses, driven tandem, to carry on the vast freighting 
business which developed, and the freight bill amounted to 
$1,500,000 in a year. The wagons were called Conestoga wagons, 
and the horses were given the same name. With the coming of 
the railroad and the river boat, the Conestoga horses and wagons 
were quickly displaced and no further efforts were made to 
breed heavy horses in America until very recent times. The 
blood of the Conestoga was absorbed into the common stock 
of the country and the type became extinct. Thus we see that 
colonial horse stocks were of three types only: — (1) the little 
saddle horse, (2) the Thoroughbred, and (3) the Conestoga. 

Origin of the roadster type. — With the opening of road- 
ways, vehicles were quickly brought into use, so quickly indeed 
that the so-called roads over which they were driven were little 
more than clearings through the woods with here and there a 
''corduroy" of logs to make passable some marshy spot. The 
roads were first improved in the more thickly settled parts of 
the country, and it was thus about Philadelphia that the road- 
ster type of horse was originated at the beginning of the nine- 
teenth century in response to the demand for a horse suitable 
for road driving and harness racing. The American trotting 
horse or roadster was derived from four sources: (1) the Eng- 
lish Thoroughbred, (2) the Norfolk Trotter, (3) the Arab and 
Barb, and (4) certain pacers of mixed breeding, By selecting 
and breeding for speed at the trot, the American Trotter has 
been developed and today may be called a true breed, although 
the individuals composing it show considerable divergence in 
type. In Vermont the Morgan horse was developed. The 
Morgans descended from one horse, Justin Morgan, whose sire 
was a Thoroughbred, but whose dam was of unknown breeding. 
While often regarded as a distinct breed, they really constitute 
one family of the American Trotter. 

American Saddle Horse. — At the time roads were being 
improved in the East, Kentucky and the West were still a country 
of bridle paths only. The blue-grass region of Kentucky is 



380 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

splendidly adapted to the production of light horses, and it was 
principally in that state and Missouri that the American Saddle 
Horse breed originated and developed. Kentucky was settled 
in 1775, and as early as 1802 it was said that "almost all of the 
inhabitants employ themselves in training and ameliorating 
the breed of horses." The American Saddle Horse originated 
from crosses of the Thoroughbred upon pacers of mixed breeding 
which had been brought from Canada. Considerable Morgan 
blood entered into the making of the breed also. Starting with 
these materials, a type of saddle horse possessing great intelli- 
gence and beauty was established. These horses are taught 
five or more distinct gaits, and as a result of years of selection 
and breeding, there is today a natural inclination on the part 
of the American Saddle Horse to show these gaits, which include 
not only the walk, trot, and canter, but also the rack, running 
walk, fox trot, and slow pace. 

The general-purpose horse. — When the railway displaced 
the Conestoga horse, many farmers attempted to produce what 
was styled "the horse of all work." By this was meant a gen- 
eral-purpose horse useful to wagon, plow, or under saddle. The 
early agricultural papers were full of advice to farmers that 
such a type be bred, and fair associations encouraged the move- 
ment by offering prizes for this class of horses. From 1840 to 
1850 the "horse of all work" was the horse of the day. About 
1850, the first draft stallions were imported from Europe, but 
they were not brought over with the idea of producing draft 
horses in this country, but to breed to the small native mares, 
with which this country was well supplied, in order to produce 
a general-purpose horse. Prior to this there were some attempts 
to produce such a horse by crossing the Thoroughbred and the 
Conestoga, but the progeny possessed most of the defects of 
both parents and were utterly unsuited for farm use or anything 
else. By 1870, breeders had come to realize that there is more 
profit in producing specialized types of horses useful for special 
purposes, rather than a single general-purpose type not capable 
of doing anything well. Thus, although articles still appear 
occasionally in farm papers advising the production of a general- 
purpose horse, and although some county fair associations persist 
in offering prizes for this ancient type, the general-purpose horse 
died a natural death a half-century ago. Let him rest in peace. 

The draft type in America. — About 1870, there arose a 
strong demand from cities for a heavy horse, and since that 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 381 

date hundreds of Percheron, Belgian, Shire, and Clydesdale 
stallions and mares have been imported to America annually 
for the purpose of breeding heavy horses fitted for the work of 
moving heavy loads over city streets — in other words, draft 
horses. America developed no draft breed of her own. After 
the Conestoga disappeared we had no heavy horses to use as 
a foundation for such a breed, and when the demand arose in 
this country several European countries had draft breeds ready 
formed which we borrowed from them. 

The carriage horse in America. — In America, as in Eng- 
land, the modem carriage horse is a recent addition to our types 
of horses. The more wealthy families among the early settlers 
of the Carolinas and Virginia kept coaches for use on state and 
social occasions, but the so-called roads were so miserable that 
driving was in no wise a pleasure. Most of the carriages in use 
in the early days were stage coaches which did the work now 
done by railways. In 1812, the fare from Philadelphia to Pitts- 
burg over the national turnpike, 297 miles, was $20 by coach, 
and it required six days to cover the distance. Crosses of the 
Flemish horse of New York and Pennsylvania with the little 
saddle horse gave the well-knit, sizeable horses required on 
these early coaches. With the growth of towns and cities, 
carriages became common, but the horses used would not today 
be classed as carriage horses although they were of a serviceable 
kind. Driving for pleasure and pastime, which in later years 
became so popular with city people, did not begin until after 
the Civil War, in fact it was not until 1880 that the modem type 
of carriage horse came into use. From that date forward, 
there was a large and increasing demand for smoothly-turned, 
high-stepping, well-mannered horses, weighing from 1,000 to 
1,200 pounds. The anim.als which supplied this demand were 
for the most part recruited from the ranks of the American 
Trotter and American Saddle Horse, although our very choicest 
carriage animals have been English Hackneys. Since 1900, the 
automobile has displaced a great many carriage horses, especially 
those of mediocre quality, but there still exists a demand for 
animals of show-yard quality for which good prices are paid. 

Effects of mechanical inventions on horse types. — The in- 
vention of firearms resulted in a change in the type of the cavalry 
horse from the old-time heavy war horse to a lighter animal 
with more speed. The displaced type did not become extinct, 
but was put to use in the fields. The invention of the railway 



382 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

and steamboat and the building of canals restricted the horse's 
field of usefulness by displacing the stage coaches and the Cones- 
toga horses and wagons. The Conestoga type then became 
extinct, being mingled and absorbed into the common stock 
of the country. In France the diligence horse was gradually 
developed into the Percheron breed. The application of elec- 
tric power to street railways in 1888 closed a channel of disposal 
for thousands of cheap horses such as were used on the old-time 
horse cars, and the perfection of the bicycle and the fad for 
cycling which followed led many to believe a horseless age was 
at hand. But the street car horse was not a profitable animal 
to produce, and many who took up the bicycle never owned a 
horse anyway. Horses came into greater demand and brought 
higher prices than ever before. 

Next came the automobile, the motor truck, and the tractor 
and again a horseless age was predicted. It is a fact that 
the motor is the strongest mechanical competitor the horse has 
had to meet, and while it is impossible at this time to say with 
exactness what the effects will be on horse production, enough 
time has elapsed to show that the horse yet has an important 
place on city streets and on roadways, as well as on the farm. 
The automobile, motor truck, and tractor are not only doing the 
work that is also done by horses, but they are doing work which 
the horse cannot do. In other words, the motor has to a large 
extent created its own necessity. There is, on the other hand, 
a vast amount of horse work of various kinds which cannot be 
done by motors. The horse and the motor each occupy fields 
of their own, the margins of which overlap to some extent, and 
here competition between the horse and motor is keen. The 
carriage horse and roadster have felt this competition most. 

Many large business firms have sold their draft horses and 
installed motor trucks, only to discover that the short haul 
may be made more economically with horses, and they have 
therefore reinstated horse equipment along with their motor 
trucks. Farmers have found that tractor manufacturers are 
over-enthusiastic regarding the tractor's ability to displace the 
horse upon the farm. The horse's place in the realm of sport 
is undisturbed by the automobile. Saddle horses, including 
the hunter and polo pony, are in great demand, while racing in 
harness and under saddle continues to prosper throughout the 
country. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



383 



Classification of the breeds. — The various breeds of horses 
may be classified according to type as follows, mention also 
being made of the place of origin of each breed : 



Draft Type 

Percheron France 

Belgian Belgium 

Shire England 

Clydesdale Scotland 

Suffolk England 

Roadster Type 

American Trotter United States 

Morgan United States 

Orloff Trotter Russia 



Carriage Type 

Hackney England 

Cleveland Bay England 

Yorkshire Coach England 

French Coach France 

German Coach Germany 

Saddle Type 

American Saddle Horse. .United States 

Thoroughbred England 

Arabian Arabia 



CHAPTER XXX. 

DRAFT TYPE. 

The first question which presents itself is — What is a draft 
horse? A draft horse is a horse adapted to the work of pulHng 
heavy loads at a walk. The farmer who produces draft geld- 
ings for sale looks to the city for a purchaser, for in the cities 
the greatest demand is found, and the big, heavy drafter there 
finds ready sale at a good figure. The conditions of street 
traffic in large cities demand the hauling of the largest possible 
loads. Distances are great and delays waste much time. At 
street crossings, bridges, and at railway crossings, minutes are 
lost that in a day count up to hours. At sidings and warehouses, 
it is a lucky chance if a team can get up to its door or car with- 
out waiting for one or more wagons to be loaded or unloaded 
ahead of it. There is thus a natural tendency for teamsters 
to haul big loads in order to move the freight, and this makes 
big horses necessary. Furthermore, big wagons, big loads, and 
big horses enable merchants to move the goods with less equip- 
ment and fewer drivers, and lessen expenditures for shoeing, 
feed, stabling, harness, and repairs. There is thus a tendency 
toward big horses and big loads in all cases where quick delivery 
is not imperative, and where loading and unloading are done 
at one or a few points. The heavy loading of wagons has gone 
so far that many cities have placed restrictions upon the size 
of loads, in order to protect draft animals from abuse. In 
Chicago, the maximum load for a single horse or mule is 3,500 
pounds, and when two or more horses are hitched together, 
the maximum is 4,000 pounds per animal. 

We must bear in mind that the drafter is not only adapted 
to pulling heavy loads at a slow gait, but that this work is done 
on hard pavements in the city. The draft horse not only does 
the hardest kind of work required of horses, but he works under 
conditions which put his feet and legs to a severe test. The 
drafter may be said to be the real business horse, whereas the 
carriage horse, roadster, and saddle horse are largely used for 
pleasure purposes. 

In order to do the work required of him, the draft horse 
must possess the following qualifications — (1) weight, (2) 

384 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 385 

strength, (3) true, snappy action, (4) endurance and durability, 
(5) feeding capacity, and (6) good disposition. 

Weight. — This is decidedly essential. The heavier the 
horse, the more adhesion he has to the ground. When a horse 
is working in harness, the traces tend to lift the fore feet off 
the ground, and for this reason a heavy horse is able to use 
his weight to good advantage. In stage-coach days it was a 
common trick for the driver to throw a bag of meal across a 
horses' back, or get upon a horse himself, in case the coach got 
into a place where a hard pull was necessary. By so doing, his 
team was often able to start the load without other assistance. 
The added weight produced more adhesion between the feet 
and the ground, thus enabling the animal to exert all his strength 
at a pull, instead of uselessly "scratching gravel" when trying 
to start. 

Standing on a hard surface, a man of 200 pounds weight 
can easily outpull a man of 150 pounds in a tug-of-war, for the 
reason just explained. If the 150-pound man take another man 
upon his shoulders and back, however, he can defeat his opponent 
who outweighs him by 50 pounds. The man on the shoulders 
of the 150-pound contestant adds nothing to the muscular power 
at that end of the rope, but rather lessens it; but the added 
weight and the increase in adhesion permit the full strength of 
muscles to be more nearly exerted, and the 200-pound man is 
readily defeated. 

The horse moves a load by (1) simply leaning against the 
collar, and (2) by muscular strength. Thus, weight has a sec- 
ond advantage in that it takes the place of some of the mus- 
cular energy, for the weight of a heavy horse more nearly off- 
sets the weight of the load than does the weight of a smaller 
horse, and every extra pound thrown against the collar means 
a corresponding reduction in muscular force required in moving 
the load. Then, too, as a rule, the larger the horse, the stronger 
he will be. 

To sum up, weight in the draft horse has three values — 
(1) It gives the feet more adhesion with the pavement or ground, 
so that the muscular power may be applied to the collar, (2) by 
offsetting some of the weight of the load, it lessens the amount 
of muscular exertion required, and (3) as a rule, the heavier 
the horse, the stronger he will be. Some horses make up for a 
lack of weight by their superior ambition and courage. 



386 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Strength. — This is a matter of muscling. Draft horses 
must be very muscular throughout, especially in the hind- 
quarters. When judging drafters, fat should not be mistaken 
for muscle. 

Action. — Action that is straight and true insures conser- 
vation of energy and sure-footedness. The action should also 
be snappy ; this enables the animal to get over the ground rapidly, 
and shows a willing disposition. Action is also valuable as an 
index to the way the horse is put together ; true action can result 
only from proper placing of the feet and legs, in fact, from a 
proper proportionment of all parts, and their proper relation 
to one another. Correct action, showing trueness, snap, and 
length of stride, results from a rather rare combination of proper 
structure, muscling, and temperament. Therefore, good action 
is not only valuable in itself, but is good evidence of merit in 
the entire make-up of the horse. 

Endurance and durability. — Endurance means the ability 
to do the day's work without fagging. Durability means the 
ability to work day after day without breaking down undei* the 
strain. Endurance is concerned mostly with wind, muscling, 
and feeding capacity, while durability depends mostly upon 
the feet and legs. Some first-hand horses last but six months, 
or even less, on city streets. Others last as long as fifteen years, 
and, in some cases, even longer. If a draft horse goes to pieces 
quickly when put to work, he is a considerable loss to the owner. 
Feet and legs are the parts most liable to prove defective. Lack 
of wind is a common fault. The horse with a short rib seldom 
stands up to hard labor very long. Buyers refuse to invest 
much money in horses that are shallow bodied and cut up high 
in the flank, such animals being poor feeders. 

Feeding capacity. — The horse is comparable to a locomo- 
tive. He consumes hay and grain for fuel. Other things being 
equal, the greater the amount of fuel consumed, the greater the 
work that can be done. The drafter should be a good feeder. 

Disposition.— To be of great usefulness, a draft horse must 
be a prompt, willing worker that will be pleasant to handle, 
active, and quick to respond to commands, yet quiet and docile. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE. 

General appearance. — The form of the draft horse is low 
set, broad, deep, massive, compact, symmetrical, and stylish. 
He should have a short back and a long underline. He must 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



387 



weigh not less than 1,600 pounds, and ton horses are the sort 
to keep in mind as draft horses. Weights over a ton are not 
uncommon. It has been estimated, on the basis of weights 
and prices for horses at the large markets, that every 100 pounds 
above 1,500 adds $25.00 to the horse's value. As to height, 
drafters usually stand from 16 to 17 hands at the withers. The 
height over the hips should be no greater than at the withers, 
as this detracts from the symmetrical appearance, throws more 
weight upon the forequarters, and makes the action stilted and 
heavy. Although the short-legged horse is more powerful, the 




Fig. 125. Points of the Horse. 



1. Muzzle 

2. Nostril 

3. Face 

4. Eye 

5. Forehead 

6. Ear 

7. Poll 

8. Cheek 

9. Jaw 

10. Throttle 

11. Neck 



12. Crest 

13. Withers 

14. Shoulder 

15. Point of shoulder 

16. Breast 

17. Arm 

18. Elbow 

19. Forearm 

20. Knee 

21. Cannon 



22. Fetlock joint 32. 



23. Pastern 

24. Coronet 

25. Foot 

26. Ribs 

27. Belly 

28. Flank 

29. Back 

30. Coupling 

31. Hip 



33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 



Croup 

Tail 

Thigh 

Point of buttock 

Quarters 

Stifle 

Gaskin 

Hock 

Chestnut 

Sheath 



horse with slightly more length of leg will take a longer stride, 
and may therefore be more useful. Some buyers also prefer a 



388 Ty:pes and Market Classes of Live Stock 

certain degree of height in the drafter because they use wagons 
with a high top or cover, and a short-legged horse would not be 
in harmony with such vehicles. At this point, it may be men- 
tioned that a great many firms desire horses which are not only 
able to do their work successfully, but which also have con- 
siderable style and beauty that will attract attention on the 
streets and help to advertise the firm and its business. To this 
end, a great deal of money is invested in vehicles nicely designed 
and ornamented, which are horsed with animals that add to, 
rather than detract from, the appearance of the turnout. Buy- 
ers keep the vehicle in mind when buying horses. 

Quality and substance, as shown in head, hair, hoofs, bone, 
and joints, should be preeminent. Substance refers particularly 
to the size of the bone as shown in cannons and joints, while 
quality refers to the fineness of texture of all parts. Quality 
associated with substance insures good wearing qualities. Qual- 
ity is shown in bone that is hard and smooth, joints that are 
well defined, or clean, and cannons and pasterns that are entirely 
free from meatiness. As previously explained, it is objectionable 
for a horse to be meaty in his knees or hocks or in the parts 
below them. The term "clean," as applied to the hocks, knees, 
cannons, ankles, and pasterns, means that these parts are en- 
tirely free from meatiness, swelling, or other unnatural develop- 
ment, so that the natural structure is sharply and clearly defined. 
Clean legs are one of the best and most important evidences 
of good quality. The cannons of some draft breeds have more 
or less long hair, called "feather." If it is fine and "pily," 
rather than coarse and curly, it indicates quality, for fine hair 
seldom covers rough, coarse bone. The entire coat, including 
mane and tail, also indicates quality if the hair is soft and fine. 
The horse with quality will have a head of medium size, a neat 
ear, a trim muzzle, and a chiseled appearance about the face 
and jaws. He also has hoofs of fine texture which will wear 
well, and his joints are less subject to bony diseases. 

Head. — The size of the head should be proportionate to 
the size of the horse. A pony head is not the right sort for a 
draft horse, and a barrel head indicates coarseness and lack of 
good breeding. Every line and feature should be distinct, — 
there should be a chiseled appearance that indicates character, 
quality, and good breeding. Great width between the eyes 
and a broad, full forehead show intelligence. The eye should 
be large, bright, clear, and very prominent, to insure good vision. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 389 

for the horse should be able to see where he is stepping. The 
nose and muzzle should be broad, indicating a good feeder. 
The nostrils should be large (but not permanently distended), 
to provide easy breathing. Trim lips that are thin show quality 
and refinement. Strong cheeks, and jaws that are wide across 
underneath, provide good grinding ability for proper mastication 
of feed. The ears should be of fine texture and medium size, 
and should be set well up toward the poll and carried alert. 




Fig. 126. The Draft Type. 

Big Jim, four times champion draft gelding at the International. Mr. 
J. H. S. Johnstone, of the Live Stock World, wrote the following regarding 
Big Jim when announcing his death in 1910: "There never was a prouder 
stepper in harness, and there never was a big one that held himself together 
and went at his work in a more sprightly manner. His size was immense — 
2,385 pounds — and not one of his competitors ever approached him in that 
regard. Personally I do not expect to see his like again." 

Ears set down on the side of the head and carried in a lopping 
fashion decidedly injure the appearance. The expression of 
the eye and the carriage of the ear are good evidences of the 
temperament and disposition. The head should be of medium 



390 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

length, and, as viewed in profile, the face line should be rather 
straight. A Roman face line indicates a strong, determined 
will, and is not desirable. 

Neck. — The neck of the draft horse should be at least 
medium long, and should be very muscular, with some degree 
of crest or arch to the top. The crest should be pronounced 
in the stallion, but not so excessive as to break over to one side. 
At the junction with the body, the neck should be very deep, 
but at the throttle it should be very trim and rather cut up 
underneath, with no fullness or thickness there to bring pressure 
on the windpipe. The head and neck should be carried well 
up, to insure good vision, lighten the forehand, and improve 
the appearance. 

Shoulders. — The shoulders should be very deep, muscular, 
and have much slope. An upright shoulder results in trans- 
mission of shock, and also in shortness of stride. A sloping, 
muscular shoulder that is laid in snugly is conducive to good 
action. Frequently, the shoulders are too open and prominent, 
so that the horse does not stand over his legs as he should. Such 
horses do not take a straight stride, but swing their legs outward 
when in action. 

Withers. — The tops of the shoulder blades should come 
well together so that the withers may be well defined, though 
muscular, and not as sharp as in the lighter kinds of horses. 

Breast and chest. — The breast should be very wide and 
very muscular. The chest should be full, wide, and deep, to 
provide room for heart and lungs. The horse is an athlete, and 
large lungs and good heart action are very essential. A con- 
tracted heart-girth shows lack of constitution. There is no 
such thing as too much heart-girth or chest capacity. 

Arm. — The arm should be very muscular, and should be 
thrown forward to give slope to the shoulder. 

Forearm. — The forearm should be powerfully muscled, 
so that as viewed from the side it appears very broad next to 
the body, tapering to the knee. No muscles are present below 
the knees and hocks, hence the action is dependent upon the 
muscles above these joints. 

Knee. — The knee must be broad from every point of view, 
and must be deep from top to bottom. This provides a large 
joint, indicating strength. The knee must also be straight, so 
as to set the leg straight below the body. There must be no 
meatiness about the knee or any of the joints or parts below, 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 391 

for, as has been stated, all muscles end above the knee and are 
attached to the parts below by tendons. Meatiness about the 
knee interferes with the working of the tendons, and lessens the 
free and easy flexion of the joints. Hence the knee should be 
clean, flat across the front, and well defined. This is essential. 

Cannons. — The cannons should be short and clean, with 
the tendons large and set well back from the bone. As viewed 
from the side, there should be good width, and the cannon should 
be flat instead of round. As one passes the hand along the 
cannon bone, it should feel smooth, hard, and dense. The 
skin and hair covering it should be fine. Between the bone and 
the tendons there should be well-marked depressions or grooves. 
Meatiness about the cannons is as objectionable as it is about 
the joints, and for similar reasons. The cannons furnish one 
of the best means of determining quality. Clean, flat, smooth 
cannons have bone that is composed of fine cells, and that is 
flinty in character. Coarse, rough bone is made up of large 
cells, and is porous and spongy. Too much refinement of bone 
is often found in the draft horse. On the other hand, large 
bone is frequently found which is very lacking in quality. There 
should be a combination of substance with quality. It is possi- 
ble to make up in quality a certain lack of substance, but not 
the contrary. 

Fetlock joint. — The fetlock joint should be wide from front 
to back, clean, and well defined. 

Pasterns. — The pasterns should be oblique to relieve con- 
cussion, and should show reasonable length. A slope of about 
forty-five degrees is desired. More slope than this tends to- 
ward weakness. The pasterns should show plenty of sub- 
stance, yet be clean, and should spread out or expand at the 
lower end into wide, round, open hoof -heads or coronets. 

Feet. — The old saying, "No foot, no horse," is full of truth. 
A draft horse of excellence in all respects except feet is as worth- 
less as a fine building on a flimsy foundation. When it is con- 
sidered to what great stress the foot of the draft horse is sub- 
jected, the wonder is that feet last as long as they do on hard 
pavements. Driven against cobblestones and brick by the 
great weight of the body above, the fore feet undergo repeated 
shocks which soon batter to pieces feet that are defective. The 
foot should be large, to afford a large bearing surface. When 
viewed from front or side, the axis of the foot should coincide 
with the axis of the pastern. The hoof should appear dense, 



392 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

waxy, and smooth, indicating toughness and durability. The 
form of the hoof should be round. Inasmuch as the wall of 
the hoof grows out from the coronet or hoof -head, the size and 
shape of the foot will depend largely upon the size and shape 
of the hoof-head, which should therefore be large and round. 
A foot that is large on the ground and cramped and small at 
the hoof-head has too much flare of the wall to provide strength, 
and is not a good foot. The sole should be concave, as this 
means strength. Flatness of sole is a common fault among draft 
horses. The bars should be strong, to insure against contraction 
of the heels, and the frog should be large and elastic. The heels 
should be very wide and fairly high, and the fore feet should be 
symmetrically made and uniform in size and shape. The position 
of the feet and legs should be as described in Chapter XXVIII. 

Ribs. — The ribs should be well sprung and deep, giving 
a wide, deep body. Such a conformation provides a strong 
middle-piece, gives the necessary weight to the animal, and 
indicates good digestive capacity, as well as ample room for 
heart and lungs. The distance from the last rib to the hip 
should be short, and the flank should be deep. Horsemen 
speak of a deep, full flank as a "good bread basket," and in 
certain sections of the country where a business is made of 
feeding drafters for market, care is taken to select animals for 
feeding that have deep, full middles, for the other kind are poor 
feeders and cannot easily be made fat. The horse that is cut 
up high in the flank is said to be "wasp-waisted," "tucked-up," 
or "washy." When put to work, such horses show lack of en- 
durance or stamina, for they do not consume enough feed to 
replace the energy expended in doing hard labor; hence they 
become very thin in flesh, and are unable to do hard work for 
many days in succession. The middle of the draft horse in good 
flesh should be very large, and as round as a dollar. 

Back. — The back forms the connection between the power, 
which is in the hindquarters, and the point of application of this 
power, which is the shoulder. A short, rather straight, broad 
back that is heavily muscled affords the strongest conformation. 
A short, wide back is not only more rigid than a long, narrow 
one, but also brings the power closer to the collar; it is therefore 
much desired because of its mechanical advantage over the long, 
rangy conformation. 

Loin. — The loin is usually called the "coupling." It lies 
just in front of the hips, and includes those vertebrae which 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 393 

have no ribs below them. The loin, like the back, should be 
short, broad, and heavily muscled. 

Hips. — Beginning with the hips and continuing through- 
out the hindquarters, we are dealing with the location of those 
muscles which furnish power for draft, hence we want an ap- 
pearance of great massiveness everywhere. It used to be thought 
that the draft horse did his work simply by falling against the 
collar, thus bringing his weight to bear, and consequently that 
his forequarters ought to be as heavy as possible; it was no 
harm if his shoulders were straight, and as for his hindquarters, 
it did not matter much what they were. But this idea has 
been exploded and it is now known that he pulls by muscle 
more than by weight, and much more by the muscles of his 
hindquarters than by those of his forequarters. So we want 
the hips of the drafter to be wide and heavily muscled, yet 
smooth. 

Croup. — A very broad and long croup gives the greatest 
area for the laying on of muscle. It should also be fairly level 
from hips to setting on of tail. A steep croup not only de- 
tracts from the appearance, but is also usually associated with 
shortness of croup, weakness of coupling, and crooked hind 
legs. The croup should be covered with heavy, massive muscles. 

Tail. — The tail should be attached high, and should be 
full haired and well carried. 

Thighs. — The thighs should be very wide and should bulge 
with muscle, and the quarters should be very deep and heavy. 
The stifle should likewise be heavily muscled, and there should 
be great width through the hindquarters from stifle to stifle. 
Viewed from the side, the thigh should be very wide from stifle 
to end of body. 

Gaskins. — The gaskins, like the forearms, should be very 
wide and bulging with muscle. 

Hocks. — Suppose we have a pair of ton horses hitched to 
a big load. When the word is given to start, the horses extend 
and lower their heads, lean against the collar, crouch down be- 
hind by bringing their hind feet forward and flexing their hocks, 
and then the pull of the powerful muscles of the hindquarters 
extends the hock joint and straightens the hind leg, thus bring- 
ing great pressure against the collar, and the load moves. The 
point to be remembered is that an enormous strain comes upon 
the hock, and if there is any weakness in that joint it is certain 
to cause trouble. The hock must be large, clean, wide both 



394 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

ways, and deep, and the point of the hock should be prominent. 
It should be straight from top to bottom. Hocks that are badly 
sickled, bowed outward, or cow hocked are not stout enough to 
match the strength of the muscles above. They thus limit 
the power of the horse and are likely to become unsound. Fleshi- 
ness and puffs are distinctly objectionable. Thick, meaty hocks 
are too common in draft horses. A clean appearance, so that 
every angle and line of the joint is apparent, is very much de- 
sired. 

Cannons, pasterns, and feet. — The requirements for hind 
cannons, pasterns, and feet are almost identical with those in 
front. However, the hind cannons are always longer and usually 
broader than the front ones. Also, the hind pasterns are seldom 
so sloping, and the hind feet are not quite so large or round. 
There is less concussion behind than in front, but the stress is 
much greater at the pulL, hence it is proper that hind pasterns 
and feet be a little more erect, in order to provide the necessary 
strength of conformation. 

From what has been said above, the value of a properly set 
hind leg, as viewed from behind, is emphasized. If the horse 
is "bow legged," his legs will prove weak when the strain is 
put upon them. Walking on a crooked hind leg is comparable 
to driving a bent nail. The force of the hammer bends the nail 
instead of driving it into the wood, and a crooked hind leg bows 
outward instead of remaining rigid and transmitting full force 
against the collar. 

Symmetry. — Now that the details of the drafter's con- 
formation have been described, a word may be added regarding 
symmetry or proportionment of parts. The fact is that some 
horses are good in their various parts, yet fail to present a good 
appearance. What they lack is symmetry. The head may 
be good, and the neck may be good also, but the two may be 
joined at an angle which injures the appearance. The neck 
may not rise from the shoulders as it should. The feet may 
be good, but may be too small to be in proportion to the size 
and weight of the animal. The top line from head to tail may 
be an irregular line full of angles, whereas it should be gracefully 
curved. The hips may be wide, which is desirable, yet they 
should not be wide out of all proportion to the rest of the body, 
so as to be ragged and prominent. Seemingly small factors 
such as these may or may not affect the horse's usefulness for 
work, but frequently they constitute the difference between a 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



395 



plain animal and one of show-yard character, between which 
there is a great difference in price. One horse looks as though 
he were made up of a lot of different-sized parts which do not 
fit well together, while the other seems cast from a carefully 
prepared mould. Standing in natural position, the symmetrical 
horse carries his head and neck well up, so that the face line, 
shoulder, and pastern all slope at nearly the same angle; the 
croup is fairly level from hips to tail, the tail is set high, and all 
parts of his conformation are so proportioned as to give him a 
well-balanced appearance. 

On the matter of type. — To present the best appearance, 
the drafter should not be over-drafty in type; that is, shortness 
of leg and compactness and width of body should not be carried 




Fig. 127. Heavy Drafters in Harness. 

This is the famous team of grays which was invincible at the leading 
shows a few years ago. They were shown in both the United States and 
Great Britain. Big Jim was the near wheeler in this team. Owned by Ar- 
mour & Company of Chicago. 

to the extreme. This type of horse is sometimes referred to 
as the "Poland-China drafter." A certain degree of length of 
leg, length of neck, and length of underline is necessary, not 
only for the sake of looks, but also because it actually makes 
the horse more useful. He takes a longer step, and will do 
more work in a day than the extremely pudgy type of horse. 
On the other hand, we certainly do not want a horse that is 
all length and style. We must aim at the middle ground, select- 
ing for as much style as may be had without sacrifice of any 
of those qualities which make the draft horse useful for his work. 



396 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Action. — The action of the draft horse should be true, 
snappy, and bold. As you see him going or coming, the move- 
ment of the legs should be straight in the line of motion, the 
feet being carried true, with no paddling or irregularity of gait. 
Walking away from you, he should move with enough snap to 
give you the flash of his shoe at every step. As you view him 
in action from the side, he should show length of stride and 
enough height of action to clear the ground safely at each step. 
High knee action is not essential; in fact, carriage horse action 
in a draft horse means useless expenditure of energy. However, 
there should be a strong, free movement of knees and hocks, 
without dragging or stiffness. The walk is the real gait of the 
draft horse, and an active, snappy, springy walk, with trueness 
and length of stride, is the prime essential so far as action is 
concerned. However, the trot often magnifies defects in gait 
so that they are more easily seen, and in show and sale rings 
drafters are shown at both gaits. The stride in the trot should 
be long, true, springy, steady, and business-like, with a certain 
degree of height of action to insure against stumbling. Horse- 
men like a bold way of going that indicates willingness and 
courage in the horse. 

In action, the hocks should pass close together, so close in 
fact that they nearly brush each other. Some horses go so wide 
behind that a wheelbarrow could be put between the hind legs 
and scarcely touch them. Any tendency to spraddle behind 
is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, defect which the drafter 
can exhibit, so far as action is concerned. 

The study of action is one requiring close attention. The 
observer must take into consideration every movement of the 
horse. Attention must be given not only to the movement of 
the feet and legs, but also to the carriage of the head and neck 
and the entire body. The head should be carried well up, giv- 
ing a stylish appearance and a good outlook, and the top of the 
horse should be carried level and true, without any rolling or 
wobbling motion from side to side, and without any indication 
of lameness. The front and hindquarters should act in unison, 
and the legs should be kept well under the body as the horse 
travels, showing no tendency to drag the hind legs, and especially 
the hocks, out behind the body. When kept up underneath as 
they should be, and when all the motions of the horse are in 
unison, we say that he moves in a collected manner. As before 
stated, perfection in action can result only when there is a com- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 397 

bination of proper conformation and strength, and a willing 
disposition. 

Common defects in the action of draft horses are (1) going 
wide at the hocks, (2) swinging the fore legs outward, called 
"paddling," (3) swinging in, (4) striking supporting leg with 
foot of striding leg, called "interfering," (5) twisting striding 
leg around in front of supporting leg, called "winding," "plait- 
ing," or "rope walking," (6) short, stubby stride, (7) low, skim- 
ming action, called "daisy cutting," (8) unsteadiness of gait, 
(9) striking sole or heels of fore foot with toe of hind foot, called 
"forging," (10) excessive lateral shoulder motion, called "roll- 
ing," (11) lack of energy or snap, and (12) lameness. 

Color. — It is commonly said that a good horse cannot have 
a bad color. By this is meant that color is disregarded if the 
horse suits otherwise. Some colors, however, are very generally 
disliked, and still other colors are not liked by some persons. 
For instance, duns, flea-bitten grays, white horses, very light 
grays, and spotted horses are universally discounted, either 
because they are hard to groom, hard to match, or because the 
color is unsightly. Dark colors, such as dark or steel gray, 
dark dappled gray, dark bay, dark brown, dark chestnut, dark 
roan, and black, are given preference. Dark dappled grays are 
well liked by buyers, and some firms will accept no other color 
because the flash gray color attracts attention to their turnouts. 
It is not uncommon for business houses to adopt some color as 
a sort of trademark, on account of the advertising value. How- 
ever, color is of less importance in draft horses than in any other 
type. This is true because the drafter is a business horse, whereas 
other types are valued mostly for pleasure purposes. 

Finish. — The term "finish" refers to fatness and to the 
condition of the coat. The horse market discriminates in price 
to a considerable degree between the fat drafter and the thin 
one, and it is surprising what an improvement is made in some 
horses by the addition of fat. Fatness adds to the weight, 
improves the form and spirit, and provides the necessary reserve 
store of energy to carry the horse through the first few weeks 
in the city during adjustment to city sights, sounds, loads, pave- 
ments, stables, and other new conditions. Although fat is impor- 
tant in the horse for sale or show, the judge must learn to distinguish 
between fat and muscle, and must not be deceived as to size of mid- 
dle, spring or rib, or length of back and croup. The coat should 
be well groomed, so as to give the animal a sleek appearance. 



398 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 




^ »^!*W ''^- 





Fig. 128. Before and After Fattening. 

A gelding fattened by Mr. B. E. Carmichael of the Ohio Experiment 
Station. Fattening shortened the back, filled out the coupling, smoothed 
the hips, lengthened and levelled the croup, rounded out the middle, gave 
crest to the neck, transformed his angular lines into pleasing curves, and 
changed his worried expression of eye and ear to one of contentment, alertness, 
and spirit. The feet and legs, however, are not improved during the fattening 
period. 

It might be assumed from these pictures that fat will transform the head, 
neck, and entire top of a horse from inferior to excellent. However, when 
fat this gelding does not have the big middle which a fat horse should have, 
neither does he show just the right lines and proportions. It is difficult to 
recognize the merits of a thin animal, and it is almost as difficult to see the 
faults of a fat one. The above pictures strikingly illustrate these facts. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 399 

Weight for age. — Draft horses that are properly fed and 
cared for usually reach at least 50 per cent, of their matured 
weight at 12 months of age; 75 per cent, at 24 months; 85 per 
cent, at 36 months; 95 per cent, at 48 months; and 100 per cent, 
at 60 months. On this basis the horse that is to weigh a ton 
at maturity should weigh not less than 1000 pounds at 12 
months, 1500 pounds at 24 months, 1700 pounds at 36 months, 
1900 pounds at 48 months, and 2000 pounds at 60 months. 
These are general averages. Variations will occur depending on 
feed, care, breed, sex, and individual. Belgians and Percherons 
mature somewhat earlier than Shires and Clydesdales. Mares 
and geldings mature quicker than stallions, but do not as a rule 
make as heavy weights at maturity. Some highly-fed colts and 
fillies make the weights mentioned at 12 and 24 months and 
then stop growing so soon that they fall considerably below a 
ton at maturity. This 'is especially true of yearlings and two- 
year-olds that have a compact, low-set form and finished appear- 
ance like a mature horse, instead of the growthy, rugged appear- 
ance characteristic of youngsters that ultimately reach real draft 
horse size and weight. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

THE CARRIAGE OR HEAVY-HARNESS HORSE. 

The modern carriage horse is almost exclusively a pleasure 
horse. His name implies his use. He is put before various 
kinds of pleasure vehicles, ranging from the light runabout to 
the heavy coach. Because he wears heavy leather, in contrast 




^jikJ^jL^ JfekkL . 



Fig. 129. Carriage or Heavy-Harness Type. 

Hackney mare, Queen of Diamonds, imported and owned by the Truman 
Pioneer Stud Farm, Bushnell, 111. 

to the harness worn by the roadster, he is also called the heavy- 
harness horse. It is apparent that there should be a wide range 
in the size and weight of carriage horses, in order to meet the 
widely varying demands of the various vehicles and uses to 
which this horse is put. In other respects, all carriage horses 
are very nearly alike. 

400 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 401 

The value of the carriage horse is determined by (1) beauty 
of conformation, (2) action, (3) manners, (4) temperament, 
(5) color, (6) endurance and durability. 

Beauty of conformation. — The conformation of the car- 
riage horse must show beauty, style, symmetry, and finish. 
Being a pleasure horse, it is the ability not only to do certain 
work which determines value, but to do this work gracefully, 
and to present, while standing or in action, a picture of pleas- 
ing appearance. Everything is sidetracked for appearance in 
the breeding of this horse. Attractiveness of form is not re- 
stricted to any one type of horse, but it brings the highest price 
when found in the carriage horse. The value of the drafter is 
very largely measured by the amount of work he can do; the 
value of the light-harness horse is largely measured by his speed ; 
the value of the saddle horse depends not only upon his appear- 
ance, but also upon his knowledge of the gaits and his ability 
to carry his rider with comfort and ease; the value of the car- 
riage horse depends chiefly upon his appearance and general 
attractiveness of form and action. 

Action. — Here again, beauty is the thing sought at the 
expense of other qualities. The carriage horse must not only 
go level, true, and collected, but he must go very high — the 
higher the better. With this end in view, he is bred, fed, shod, 
trained, bitted, and driven with a view to securing as much 
height of action as possible — not because it makes him more 
useful for his work, but because it makes him more pleasing 
to look upon. A certain degree of height of action is necessary 
in all horses, in order to secure length of stride and to prevent 
stumbling; such action signifies freedom of movement of joints 
and muscles, and indicates willingness and spirit. But the 
carriage horse is asked to go higher than this, even though it 
means added wear and tear on feet and legs, and a great amount 
of energy to accomplish the result. Beauty is given first con- 
sideration. 

Manners. — Working in crowded streets, where driving 
requires considerable care, it is easily apparent that, with proper 
conformation, action, and durability, the carriage horse will 
not furnish real pleasure unless he has manners. Furthermore, 
if he fails to respond to commands, possesses a strong will that 
rebels at these commands, or fails to act quickly, his lack of 
manners may result disastrously to the occupants of the carriage. 
He must be so thoroughly trained and familiar with the com- 



402 



Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock 



mands of his driver that the execution of whatever is asked 
will be done involuntarily, unhesitatingly, and instantly. Every 
command of word, whip, or rein must be received intelligently, 
and intelligently acted upon by the horse. 

Temperament. — The sanguine or nervous temperament 
is the one desired in carriage horses, for without it we cannot 




Fig. 130. The Heavy-Harness Type in Action. 

Hackney pony, Irvington Model, bred and owned by Mr. W. D. Henry, 
Sewickley, Pa. 

expect that degree of action which is required, nor that quick- 
ness of response to commands which is essential. There are 
other types of horses which should possess the sanguine tem- 
perament to even a greater degree than the heavy-harness horse; 
these are the speed types, the trotter and the runner. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 403 

Color. — With the possible exception of the saddle horse, 
color is of more importance in heavy-harness horses than in 
any other type. The dark solid colors are preferred, as being 
in proper accord with the elegant vehicles dravm by this horse. 
White ankles are often favored, because a horse so marked has 
his action emphasized and easily seen. Grays, roans, and light 
colors are heavily discounted or even rejected, except for certain 
special restricted uses, such as sporting tandems, road fours, 
or cross-matched pairs, and in horses for ladies' use, even the 
white markings are discriminated against. True elegance and 
good taste are wanted, and this excludes colors that are flashy 
and calculated to attract undue attention. 

Endurance and durability. — The carriage horse is required 
to make only short trips at a moderate pace. Endurance is 
not so essential, therefore, as in other types. However, dura- 
bility, which means wearing quality, is of great importance. 
Extremely high action makes necessary the best of feet and legs. 
Durability is almost entirely dependent upon the amount and 
quality of bone, and the structure and texture of feet. 

We may make a final summing up of the foregoing points 
by saying that the carriage horse is one specially fitted to work 
before pleasure vehicles, over short distances, at a moderate 
pace, wearing heavy leather; and that to be in keeping with 
the handsome vehicles which he moves, he must show beauty 
and attractiveness of form and action that will add to, rather 
than detract from, the appearance of the turnout. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE. 

General appearance. — Compactness and fullness of form 
are required, in order that the horse may fill his harness prop- 
erly and be in proper keeping with the vehicles before which 
he is put. He must possess great smoothness of conformation, 
with all his lines curving rather than angular. He must appear 
snugly put together. Although it is not desired that he stand 
on very short legs, it is essential that he be not leggy, or what 
is termed "weedy," in appearance. Medium length of leg is 
required, to give proper action and lend him style and sym- 
metry. The height ranges from 14 to 16-1 hands, and the weight 
from 900 to 1,300 pounds. As previously stated, size and weight 
are of rather minor importance. However, big horses that are 
good ones are harder to find than smaller ones, hence size is of 
some importance, especially in breeding animals. The greatest 



404 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



demand is for horses standing from 15 to 16 hands. Quality 
is indicated in bone, joints, hoofs, hair, head, and smoothness 
of form. As the subject of quality has been fully discussed in 
connection with draft horse type, lengthy description is un- 
necessary here. Quality is valuable in the carriage horse because 
it assures durability, and because refinement and smoothness 
add beauty to the horse. 

Head. — The head should be refined and well proportioned 
with every feature sharply defined. The forehead should be 
broad, and the eyes should be large and prominent. Strong 




Fig. 131. The Carriage Horse in Harness. 

Compare this picture with Fig. 134, and note the difference in height of 
action, type of vehicle, and weight of harness. This is the noted Hackney 
mare, Bountiful, owned by Judge W. H. Moore of Chicago. 

jaws and a wide muzzle are desired, yet the muzzle must be 
trim, the lips thin, and the entire head free from any appearance 
of coarseness. The nostrils should be large. The ears should be 
fine and placed close together near the poll, turning in slightly 
at the tips. The attachment with the neck must be clean and 
graceful. The appearance of the head should indicate intelli- 
gence, alertness, and quality. 

Neck.— Length of neck is very essential. It should be 
gracefully arched and bear considerable muscle, — enough muscle 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 405 

to lend fullness and strength, but not so much as to give an 
appearance of heaviness or coarseness. The upper border of 
the neck should be fine along its entire length. Ewe necks are 
very unattractive and undesirable. The neck should blend 
nicely with the shoulders. The shape and carriage of the head 
and neck have much to do with making the animal a real car- 
riage horse, or a plain, inferior sort. Without a high-class 
front, no horse can qualify as a heavy-harness horse of superior 
type. 

Shoulders. — Long, snugly laid shoulders, that have a de- 
cided slope and are well muscled, are wanted. The withers 
should be well set up and should show refinement. 

Chest. — The chest should be moderately wide and very 
deep. The breast should be carried out prominently, and be 
rather muscular. 

Middle. — The middle of the horse should be round, full 
made, short on top, and long below. This calls for long, well- 
arched ribs. The back, and especially the loin, should be thickly 
muscled and short, giving strength and a smooth, finished ap- 
pearance. Depth of flank is essential, for the sake of appear- 
ance and keeping qualities. 

Hips. — ^The hips should be smooth. Prominent hips in 
the carriage horse are decidedly faulty, because they detract 
from the smoothness of form which is so much desired. 

Croup.— A long, level, fairly broad, well-muscled, and smooth- 
ly turned croup is the most attractive and the best indication 
of strength. A short, steep croup, commonly designated a 
"goose rump," is very objectionable. The tail should be at- 
tached high and carried out from the quarters. Carriage horses 
usually have the tail docked and set. 

Thighs and quarters. — Full, muscular development of 
thighs, quarters, and gaskins gives the desired plumpness of 
form and necessary strength. 

Legs. — Superior quality of bone, associated with sub- 
stance, should be evident in the cannons. The arm should be 
very muscular. The forearm should be muscular and long. 
The knee must be wide both ways, deep, and flat across the 
front. It should be clearly defined in all its lines, which means 
an absence of meatiness. The hocks should be wide from front 
to rear, broad across the front from side to side, and deep from 
top to bottom. The point of the hock should be prominent, 
and the rear edge of the joint below the point should be straight, 



406 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

or verj" slightly incurving. Roughness or coarseness of bone 
about this joint, pufRness, or meatiness are looked upon with 
suspicion as indicating weakness. The cannons, both front 
and rear, as viewed from the side, should be broad and flat, 
with the grooves between the cannon bone and tendons easily 
seen and felt. The broad, flat appearance results when the 
tendons are placed well back from the bone, and when the legs 
are free from meatiness. Smooth, hard, flinty bone and clean 
tendons are necessary. Straight, strong fetlock joints are 
essential. The front pasterns should slope at an angle of about 
45 degrees, and be long enough to give elasticity of stride, yet 
show sufficient substance to insure strength. Proper position 
of the legs is of greater importance in this type than in draft 
horses. So much of the value of the horse depends upon action, 
and so much of action depends upon proper position of the legs 
and feet, that great attention should be given to this point. 
The legs must come straight down and the toes point straight 
ahead, to insure true action. 

Feet. — The size of the foot should be proportionate to 
the size of the horse. Roundness and size of hoof-head, width 
at the heels, and height at both heel and toe are important. 
The discussion regarding the sole, bars, frog, denseness of horn, 
etc., as given in connection with draft horse type, applies here 
with equal force. 

Action. — The requirements of action in the carriage horse 
are — (1) trueness, (2) height, (3) length of stride, (4) collection, 
(5) elasticity, (6) boldness and power, (7) gracefulness of move- 
ment, and (8) moderate speed. The walk must be snappy, 
quick, and business-like to a marked degree. But it is at the 
trot that action is wholly revealed. The flight of each foot 
must be straight and true. The fore foot should be carried 
forward and high up, as if following the rim of a rolling wheel, 
and the stride should be long. The foot meets the ground 
easily and without apparent jar, in fact, the step appears elastic, 
and the meeting with the ground seems to send the foot on 
again as though it were made of rubber. The foot, pastern, 
cannon, and forearm cannot accomplish this alone. There must 
also be freedom of action of the arm and shoulder. Every 
movement must show grace and style, and the whole attitude 
of the horse should be one of combined courage and power. 

Proper folding of the knee meets only half of the require- 
ment. Associated with this, there should be a decided flexing 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 407 

of the hock. The hind foot will leave the ground with snap 
and free movement of pastern, and the hock will be carried, 
not backward, but upward toward the dock, to accomplish 
which the hock must be flexed very decidedly. If the action 
of the hind leg is as described, the hind foot clears the ground 
by considerable distance, and the hocks do not drag out behind 
the horse. Many heavy-harness horses swing the hind legs 
back and forth with but slight flexing of the hocks. Such action 
has a straggling appearance that is in marked contrast to the 
high and collected action of a horse possessing proper action. 




Fig. 132. Sensational Action. 

Little Ruby, a Champion Hackney pony stallion, owned in England. 

There should also be unison of movement between fore and 
hind legs. 

As pointed out in the description of the draft horse, ex- 
cellence of action results only when there is a combination of 
proper conformation of body and legs, correct position of feet 
and legs, sufficient muscle, proper temperament, and abundant 
spirit. Action is so valuable in the heavy-harness horse that 
breeders and dealers often resort to artificial means to secure 
it in horses which are deficient in their movement. Heavy 



408 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

shoes produce height of action. Stimulants are sometimes 
given to put spirit into the horse; these have only a temporary 
effect, and when used at all are mostly used with show horses. 
Short chains are sometimes fastened to the feet of young horses, 
to teach them to lift their feet high. Exercising over rough or 
freshly plowed ground, or. in straw, is also a common practice, 
to induce lifting of the knees and hocks. The toe is allowed 
to grow out long, adding weight to the foot and requiring more 
energy on the part of the horse in breaking over as he takes a 
stride, so that when he does break over, the extra force tends to 
carry the foot higher and farther away. Action produced by 
any such methods as these is known as artificial action, in con- 
trast to natural action bred in the horse. Artificial action is 
usually discovered without difficulty. The practiced eye de- 
tects that the horse is not doing his work with ease and pleasure. 
There seems to be a straining of muscles, a "tied up" way of 
going, and a lack of steadiness that is never seen in the natural 
actor. Artificial action results in quick tiring of the horse; it 
is not an unusual spectacle to see such horses come into the 
show ring with high action which rapidly disappears until the 
legs drag, if the horse is called upon to do much work, while the 
natural actor goes high from start to finish. 

On the other hand, no matter how natural it may be for a 
horse to go high, he still requires proper shoeing, bitting, train- 
ing, and driving, in order that his inherent ability may be de- 
veloped. Even after the horse is "made," as the saying goes, 
if he is placed in the hands of an inexperienced reinsman, un- 
skilled in driving heavy-harness horses, the result will be an 
absolute failure. The trained carriage horse responds superbly 
under the guidance of the master reinsman. Given proper aids 
from word, whip, and rein, the horse instinctively responds 
with the best performance of which he is capable. 

Speed. — This is not important in heavy-harness horses; 
only a moderate degree of speed is wanted. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 
THE ROADSTER OR LIGHT-HARNESS HORSE. 

The roadster or light-harness horse is distinctly an Ameri- 
can type, or strictly speaking, it is a breed — the American Trot- 
ter or Standardbred. The light-harness horse is a pleasure horse 
exclusively; his domain includes the regular race tracks, where 
he is used for professional racing, and also the city speedways 
and snowpaths, and country roadways, where amateur racing 
and road driving are indulged in by men who admire the trot- 
ting horse and seek recreation in the open air. 

The light-harness type and the sport of harness racing 
originated in and about Philadelphia at the beginning of the 
nineteenth century, at which time roads were improved and 
made suitable for pleasure driving. This type is the result of 
Yankee skill and genius applied to horse breeding. The Ameri- 
can Trotter is a wonderful production, and closely rivals the 
running horse in point of speed. Large numbers have been 
exported to Europe, especially to Russia, Germany, and Austria, 
where harness racing is becoming increasingly popular. 

This type is styled "light-harness type" because, on both 
road and track, the horse works in light-weight harness that 
is quite in contrast to the heavy leather worn by the heavy- 
harness horse. The harness is light because the vehicles to 
which this horse is put are very light in weight. In professional 
racing, the bike sulky is used, which weighs from 27 to 35 pounds; 
in matinee racing, the vehicle used is a light speed wagon, having 
four wheels but of the same general construction as the sulky, 
and weighing only 65 to 68 pounds. On the road, the hitch 
is to a light wagon weighing about 175 pounds, which may have 
a top much like the common piano-box buggy. For snow rac- 
ing, a specially constructed speed sleigh is used, weighing a 
little less than 100 pounds. 

The extensive use of the light-harness horse in professional 
racing is well known, and there has also been a large demand 
for this horse in amateur racing. Many Americans have de- 
rived great pleasure from owning and driving fast trotters. 
Driving clubs have been organized in many cities and towns for 
the conduct of matinee racing during the summer and fall, and 

409 



410 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

sometimes during the winter months as well. This is done 
purely from love of the sport, the prizes being ribbons and 
trophies, and not purses as in professional racing. Hundreds 
of good horses, some of them holders of world's records, have 
been purchased by men who never competed for cash prizes; 
for example, Lou Dillon, The Harvester, and Uhlan were owned 
by Mr. C. K. G. Billings who never raced his horses for money. 

The value of the light-harness horse is based upon (1) speed, 
(2) stamina or endurance, (3) durability, and (4) beauty of 
conformation. 

Speed. — Whether in use on or off the track, the light-harness 
horse is prized very largely for his speed. For racing purposes, 
he is required to show 2:30 speed at the trot, or 2:25 at the 
pace, before he is considered a light-harness horse in the true 
sense of the word; for road use he should be able to do at least 
ten miles within an hour. A light-harness horse without speed 
is as useless for the purpose intended as a drafter without size, 
or a carriage horse without action and beauty. The ability to 
"get there" is the thing for which this horse is bred and trained. 
The world's trotting record is now 1:58 (which means one minute 
and fifty-eight seconds for the mile) and is held by Uhlan, a 
gelding. The world's pacing record is 1:553^, held by the stal- 
lion Dan Patch. The world's trotting and pacing records* and 
the years when they were established are as follows: 

Trotting 

1 mile Uhlan (1912) 1:58 

2 miles The Harvester (1910). 4:15M 

3 miles Nightingale (1893) 6:55 14 

4 miles Senator L. (1894) 10:12 

5 miles Zambra (1902) 12:24 

10 miles Pascal (1893) 26:15 

Stallion Lee Axworthy (1916) 1:58M 

Mare Lou Dillon (1903) 1:583^ 

Gelding Uhlan (1912) 1:58 

Yearling Airdale (1912) 2:15^4 

Two-year-old The Real Lady (1916) 2:04K 

Three-year-old The Real Lady (1917) 2:03 

Four-year-old Peter Volo (1915) 2:02 

Five-year-old Lee Axworthy (1916) 1:58M 

Under saddle Country Jay (1909) 2:08}4 

Team Uhlan and Lewis Forrest (1912) 2:03K 



* Horse Review Harness Racing Guide, 1918. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 411 

Pacing 

Imile Dan Patch (1905) 1:55 J^ 

2 miles Dan Patch (1903) 4:17 

3 miles Elastic Pointer (1909) 7:311^ 

4 miles Joe Jefferson (1891) 10:10 

5 miles Lady St. Clair (1874) 12:54^ 

Stallion Dan Patch (1905) 1:55M 

Mare Miss Harris M. (1917) 1:58 >i 

Gelding Frank Bogash Jr. (1914) 1:59 J^ 

Yearling Frank Perry (1911) 2:15 

Two-year-old Direct the Work (1917) 2:06^ 

Three-year-old Anna Bradford (1914) 2:00^ 

Four-year-old William (1914) 2 :00 

Five-year-old William (1915) 1:583^ 

Under saddle George Gano (1915) 2:10M 

Team Minor Heir and George Gano (1912) . 2:02 

Stamina or endurance. — Most racing, both amateur and 
professional, is at mile heats over half-mile or mile tracks. Some 
races are two in three, and some three in five, heats. Not until 
some horse has succeeded in winning the necessary two or three 
heats is the race decided. For this reason, some races extend 
into very gruelling contests. Some horses show a wonderful 
burst of speed for a quarter of a mile or so, and then quit. These 
horses are said to "lack bottom," by which is meant a lack of 
stamina or endurance. Stamina means ability to go a mile at 
speed, and to repeat the mile, two, three, or more times, with 
intermissions of not less than 25 minutes. To accomplish this 
requires heart and lungs of the first order, together with a well- 
developed muscular system. On the speedway and snowpath, 
there is a great deal of brush racing, that is, racing over short 
distances of varying lengths, depending on the wishes of the 
drivers and the ease or difficulty in passing opponents. This 
is usually not so severe as a regular racing program, provided 
the horse has been properly conditioned and trained. Horses 
which have more stamina than speed must depend on their 
ability to wear down their more speedy rivals, in order to win 
a heat or race. This they do by repeated scoring for a start, 
or through the good fortune of having a race extended out to 
extra heats — what is termed a split-heat race. Other horses, 
with more speed than stamina, must be driven to win from the 
start of the race, avoiding unnecessary scoring and endeavoring 
to win the required number of heats in short order. 

Durability. — It is readily apparent that the work required 
of the light-harness horse is of such a nature as demands the 
best of feet and legs. This type of horse has a decided ad- 
vantage over the carriage horse and drafter, in that he works 



412 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

on a much more yielding footing, yet the high rate of speed puts 
his feet and legs to a very severe test, and many horses with 
speed and stamina have their usefulness and value greatly lessened 
because of failure to keep sound when called upon to go through 
a strenuous racing campaign or do a large amount of work on 
the road. Some very noted horses and some families of trotters 
have been notably lacking in this respect. 

Beauty of conformation is a comparatively small factor 
in determining the value of light-harness horses for racing pur- 
poses. Some breeders have placed considerable emphasis on 
the matter of looks and attractiveness, but in general it may 
be said that beauty in the light-harness horse, while appreciated 
whenever it occurs, has not been fully emphasized by breeders, 
because they have been catering to the demand of the race track, 
and that demand is for speed above everything else. In select- 
ing roadsters strictly for road driving, however, speed is not 
so important as endurance and the ability to make a long drive 
in creditable time, and for this work a horse of attractive, finished 
appearance is highly desirable. A big, strong, well-made horse, 
with quality, a well-carried head and tail, light mouth, good 
manners, excellent feet and legs, and a long stride, is the sort 
best suited for road driving. For the various kinds of racing, 
however, speed, stamina, and durability are the almost ex- 
clusive requirements. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE. 

General appearance. — There is considerable variation in 
the general appearance of the light-harness horse. This is a 
result of breeding for speed alone. Speed is the only character- 
istic which all light-harness horses possess with reasonable uni- 
formity. To be sure, selection and breeding for speed have 
resulted in fixing a sort of general type upon this horse. Certain 
things are necessary in the conformation of the horse to enable 
him to go fast. Acknowledging this, there is yet opportunity 
for rather wide differences in appearance. In selecting animals 
for breeding purposes, the basis of selection has been speed 
almost to the exclusion of other qualities. S. W. Parlin, Editor 
of the American Horse Breeder, has written the following on 
the subject of breeding trotters: "When choosing between two 
animals for breeding purposes, one of which is a very attractive 
animal, but known to be lacking in inheritance from animals 
that were race winners at some gait, and a less attractive one. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



413 



that has a rich speed inheritance on both sides, it will always 
be safer to take the less attractive one that has the richer in- 
heritance." 

The above outlined practice, while correct enough in breed- 
ing for the track, is responsible for the wide variation in appear- 
ance found among light-harness horses. A few breeders have 
bred for beauty and speed combined. Mr. C. J. Hamlin, who 
during his lifetime maintained a world-famous breeding and 





•tftilSVJr. 



rmmT>imi!imallim^^ABMM 



Fig. 133. Roadster or Light-Harness Type. 



AzofT, 2, 2:14M; son of Peter the Great 2:07i4 and Dolly Worthy 2:2734, 
by Axworthy 2:1532- Owned at Thompson Farm, Liberty ville, 111., Hon. 
John R. Thompson, Proprietor. 

training plant at East Aurora, N. Y., used to say — "When you 
go into a ball room, you would rather choose as a partner a 
beautiful woman who can dance well than a homely one who 
can dance equally well." He used this illustration to show 
his attitude in the production of the roadster. Mr. Hamlin 
successfully combined speed with size, soundness, style, and 
elegance of form. 



414 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

In breeding for speed alone, certain other characters are 
bound to be impressed also. Speed in the light-harness horse 
is associated or correlated with refinement, endurance, and 
courage. Size, symmetry, and beauty are not correlated with 
speed except in the most general way. The light-harness horse 
varies in weight from 800 to 1,250 pounds, and in height from 
14-2 to 16-1. Weights from 950 to 1,150 pounds and heights 
from 15 to 16 hands are most common. This type is rather 
upstanding, leggy, long, deep, narrow, and angular. Quality 
is shown by clean, smooth, dense bone; sharply defined tendons 
and joints; fine skin and hair; small ears; fine-haired mane and 
tail; hoofs of smooth, dense horn; and a chiseled, blooded-looking 
head. The temperament must be decidedly sanguine, which 
brings courage, willingness, and promptness, with no sluggish- 
ness. 

Head. — The head should be refined and well proportioned, 
with a straight face line, a fine muzzle, large nostrils, and thin, 
trim lips. The eyes should be large, prominent, clear, and bright. 
The forehead should be high, broad, and full. The ears should 
be fine, pointed, set close, and carried alert. 

Neck. — A long, lean neck, with a fine throttle, is desired. 
Ewe necks are common. A straight neck, or one with slight 
arch, is preferable. 

Shoulders. — Long, smooth, sloping shoulders, fitted close 
together, and forming high, refined withers at the top, are most 
desirable. 

Middle. — A deep rib, without much arch, is associated 
with desirable light-harness type. The chest gets its capacity 
from depth, rather than from width. A straight, medium- 
short, well-muscled back and loin are essential. The underline 
is long, and the flanks should be well let down. 

Hips. — The hips should be fairly wide, yet smooth. This 
type does not present as smooth a hip as the carriage horse. A 
little prominence of hip is not very objectionable, but if this 
is so pronounced as to give a rough appearance it is undesirable. 

Croup. — A long, level, fairly broad, muscular croup is best 
suited to this type. Defective croups are common. The tail 
should be attached high and well carried. 

Thighs and quarters. — Long, muscular thighs give speed. 
Well-muscled quarters are necessary for strength. 

Legs.— Length of leg is necessary for speed, yet there should 
be proper proportion between length of leg and size of horse. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 415 

A shallow body set up high on very long legs is not a good type. 
Yet it is just as essential that the light-harness horse have length 
of leg to secure speed, as it is that the draft horse have a short 
leg to secure great power. However, the length must come above 
the knees and hocks as much as possible. The arm should be 
muscular, and carried well forward, while the forearm should 
be long and muscular, with a nice tapering to the knee. This 
provides room for the long muscles associated with speed. The 
knees must be clean, bony, straight, broad, deep, and strongly 
supported. The cannons should be broad, with large, clean 
tendons set well back from the bone. Straight, wide fetlock 
joints and strong, sloping pasterns of good length are very nec- 
essary. The fore leg must be straight, and the toe should point 
directly forward, to insure trueness of action. A long, muscular 
gaskin is an important requirement. This brings the hocks 
far below the point of the buttock, which is essential in securing 
speed. Clean hocks that are wide, deep, straight, with promi- 
nent point, and well supported below are very necessary. The 
hind legs must be set straight, with the toes pointing straight 
ahead. Sickle-shaped hind legs are rather too common. 

Feet. — The best of feet are necessary. Although this type 
is usually afforded an easy footing, nevertheless the tremendous 
concussion puts the feet to severe strain when the horse travels 
at speed. At high speed, a stride of 19 or 20 feet is attained. 
Imagine the force of the concussion when a 1,000-pound horse 
strides 20 feet in less than half a second, as is the case when the 
horse is trotting at a two-minute gait. The feet should be well- 
developed, uniform in size, point straight forward, and slope 
at the same angle as the pastern. The horn of the hoof should 
be dense and smooth, the sole should be concave, the bars strong, 
the frog large and elastic, and the heel wide and open. 

Gait. — Both pacers and trotters are found among light- 
harness horses. These gaits differ from each other in that the 
pace is a lateral motion in which the fore and hind leg of the 
same side act together, while the trotter moves diagonally. A 
change of a few ounces in the weight of a shoe often transforms 
the gait. Many horses hold records at both gaits. The pacing 
gait is about three seconds faster for the mile than the trot, 
but it is not so popular with horsemen as the trotting gait, es- 
pecially for road driving. With the pace there is often asso- 
ciated a decided rolling of the body, which is disliked, the pull 
on the vehicle is jerky, and the pacer does not work well in the 



416 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



mud or where the going is heavy. The natural pacer also fre- 
quently possesses a steep croup, short underline, and sickle- 
shaped hind leg. 

Action. — The walk should be true, quick, elastic, and regular. 
The trot, in order to be fast without undue tiring of the horse, 
must be straight and true, with regular, even, long stride. Height 
of action is of little importance; in fact, the less knee and hock 
action the better. It is only important that the foot clear the 
ground, accompanied by enough action of knee and hock to 
secure length of stride. There should be no hitching or un- 
steadiness of gait, and no great tendency to break when going 




Fig. 134. The Light-Harness Horse in Action. 

The Harvester, 2:01, Ex-Champion trotting stallion, driven by Mr. Ed 
Geers. Owned by Mr. C. K. G. Billings of New York City. 



at speed. The action should be what is sometimes termed 
"frictionless," giving one the impression of a perfect mechanism 
that can travel at greatest speed with least expenditure of energy. 
It is apparent that much of the success of the light-harness 
horse depends upon good action, and good action, in turn, is 
dependent largely upon proper position of the legs. Defects 
in conformation result in knee knocking, speedy cutting, over- 
reaching, and other faults of action. 

Common defects in the action of light-harness horses are 
(1) swinging the fore feet inward, instead of carrying them 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 417 

straight away, (2) a stride in which extension is more marked 
than flexion, and in which the heel of the foot strikes the ground 
first, called "pointing," (3) pause in flight of foot before foot 
reaches ground, called "dwelling," (4) striking sole or heels of 
fore foot with toe of hind foot, called "forging," (5) striking 
supporting leg with foot of striding leg, called "interfering," 
(6) hitting front of hind foot, above or at line of hair, against 
toe of fore foot as it breaks over, called "scalping," (7) the trot- 
ter at speed often goes rather wide behind, and he sometimes 
strikes his hind leg, above the scalping mark, against the out- 
side of the breaking over fore foot, called "speedy cutting," and 
(8) "cross-firing," a fault in pacers corresponding to forging in 
trotters. 

Condition. — The condition of the light-harness horse is in 
marked contrast to the types previously described. When in 
desirable racing condition, there seems to be a total absence of 
fat from the muscles. A clean-cut, sinewy appearance indicates 
proper racing trim. For hard use on the road, a fat horse is 
almost equally objectionable. The fat horse is soft, sweats easily, 
and tires quickly. However, proper condition is not secured by 
giving short rations. The roadster should be well fed, and kept 
in proper condition by lots of exercise. 

Color. — A study of the American Trotting Register, which 
is the stud book in which Standardbred horses are recorded, 
indicates that the colors per thousand horses are as follows: — 
605 bays, 140 chestnuts, 130 browns, 85 blacks, 25 grays, 13 roans, 
and 2 duns. The first four colors — bay, chestnut, brown, and 
black — are liked best. Grays, roans, and duns are not so popu- 
lar. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 
THE SADDLE HORSE. 

Any horse used for riding might be called a saddle horse. 
But there is a certain type of horse best suited to carrying a 
man in safety and comfort, and this is the type to bear in mind 
when thinking of saddle horses. The horse of all pioneer peoples 
is the saddler. In new countries, before the opening- of roads, 
the saddle horse is of greatest usefulness. When the country 
becomes settled and roadways are opened and improved, other 
types of horses quickly appear, and there is less and less real 
necessity for the saddle horse; but the saddler never disappears 
from any community, because he is highly prized as a horse for 
pleasure and recreation. 

When roads were being opened in the states along the east- 
ern seaboard, and the roadster began to gain popularity, Ken- 
tucky, Missouri, and the West were yet a country of bridle 
paths, and there the saddle horse was held in high esteem. In 
1818, a traveller through the Kentucky blue-grass region reported 
that "the horse, 'noble and generous,' is the favorite animal 
of the Kentuckian, by whom he is pampered with unceasing 
attention. Every person of wealth has from ten to thirty, of 
good size and condition, upon which he lavishes his corn with 
a wasteful profusion." Besides Kentucky and Missouri, the 
states of Virginia and Tennessee have been intimately con- 
nected with saddle horse development in America. These four 
states produce many excellent saddle animals annually. 

Today, saddle horses are used in a business way by the 
cavalry of the United States Army and National Guard, by the 
mounted police of the larger cities, by cattle drovers in rural 
districts, by cattle buyers and salesmen at the large live-stock 
markets, by ranchers in the West, and by overseers and man- 
agers of large plantations and farms in the South, East, and 
Central West. However, the high prices for saddle horses are 
paid by people to whom the saddler is a pleasure horse. In 
city parks and on country roads are to be seen many excellent 
saddle horses, used strictly for pleasure and recreation. 

All good saddle horses possess a general type which we 
may call "saddle type," but the uses made of saddle horses are 

418 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 419 

so varied that several varieties or sub-types of the saddle horse 
exist, each possessing a distinct type of its own. The most 
important of these sub-tjrpes are (1) the five-gaited saddler, 
(2) the three-gaited horse, (3) the hunter, and (4) the polo pony. 
All of these are pleasure horses. The running horse or race 
horse, the cavalry horse, and the western cow pony are other 
sub-types adapted to certain special uses, but the following 
discussion is confined to the four first mentioned. A brief 
description of the cavalry horse will be found in the chapter 
dealing with market classes of horses. 

The Five-Gaited Saddle Horse. 

The five-gaited saddle horse is also known as the Ameri- 
can Saddle Horse, this being the name of the breed which sup- 
plies practically all horses of the gaited class. To classify as a 
five-gaited horse, the saddler must have at least five gaits, four 
of which must be the walk, trot, canter, and rack; in addition 
to these four, the horse must have one or more of three slow 
gaits — the running walk, fox trot, and slow pace. The gaited 
saddler is the horse that has made Kentucky and Missouri 
famous. In his native home he is looked upon with great ad- 
miration, and bred and trained with great care. 

General appearance. — The gaited horse wears a natural 
mane and tail, in contrast to the other types of saddle horses. 
The breeders of this type lay stress upon loftiness of carriage, 
airiness of movement, refinement, intelligence, docility with 
high spirit and courage, — withal, great beauty in every detail 
of conformation, without any sacrifice of those qualities which 
insure durability and creditable performance of the work de- 
manded of a saddle horse. A leading Kentucky breeder pre- 
sents the points of the typical five-gaited saddle horse in the 
following brief paragraph*: — 

"The tjHpical saddle horse does not differ materially from 
other light horses in conformation. The characteristics peculiar 
to the type are a long, clean neck, sloping pasterns and shoul- 
ders, withers moderately high and narrow, a short and compactly 
coupled back, smoothly turned quarters, and a well-set, high- 
carried tail. In action there should be promptness, ease, and 
precision in going from gait to gait, and absolute straightness 
and evenness in each. The rack should be smooth, swift, and 



*Bit & Spur, September, 1912, p. 22. 



420 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



without side motion of the body or legs, the trot should be fast 
and without offensive flashiness, the canter should be slow with 
no increasing speed, the flat-footed walk should be springy and 
reasonably fast, while the running walk, or fox trot, should be 
easy and comfortable and equal to about five miles an hour." 

Gaits. — In a wild state the natural gaits of the horse were 
four in number — the walk, trot, pace, and gallop or run. Under 
domestication these gaits have been variously modified and addi- 
tions made for saddle purposes. These additions and modifica- 
tions are largely the result of the selection for breeding purposes 




Fig. 135. Five-Gaited Saddle Horse. 

The noted prize-winning stallion, Kentucky's Choice. Owned by Mrs. 
R. Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky. 

of those animals most readily acquiring the desired gaits when 
trained to them. The gaits desired in the five-gaited type of 
saddle horse are as follows: 

Walk. — The flat-footed walk should be springy, regular, 
and reasonably fast. 

Trot. — This is a diagonal gait, the off fore foot and near 
hind foot striking the ground together, the body being then 
propelled forward from this support and sustained by the near 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



421 



fore foot and off hind foot. It is a "two-beat" gait. The trot 
should be fast, with only moderate height of action, extreme 
knee action being undesirable. Many otherwise excellent saddle 
horses cannot trot well, "pointing" and coming down on their 
heels, instead of exhibiting a well-balanced trot. 

Canter. — The canter is a restrained gallop. It is slower 
than the gallop and easier to ride. With proper training, the 
horse easily acquires this gait. It should be slow, with no in- 




Fig. 136. The Saddle Horse in Action. 

Edna May, undefeated flve-gaited mare, ridden by Mr. Mat S. Cohen, 
Lexington, Ky. Owned by Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky. This 
picture shows correct degree of knee and hock action and proper carriage 
of head and tail. 

creasing speed. The canter is not considered perfect until the 
horse can perform it at a rate no faster than a fast walk. To 
"canter all day in the shade of an apple tree" is a saying some- 
times used to describe the canter of a highly trained saddler 
that can canter very slowly and in a small circle. A well-trained 
horse will change lead in the canter, and start with either foot 
leading, at the will of the rider. 



422 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Rack.— This is a four-beat gait, each foot meeting the 
ground singly, all the intervals being equal. Hence it is some- 
times called "single foot." This gait may be distinguished 
by the ear alone, because the foot-falls are rapid enough to 
produce a characteristic clatter. The rack is taught by urging 
the horse with the whip or spurs and restraining by the curb. 
This breaks up the movement of a slow gait, and the restraint 
is sufficient to prevent a free trot or canter, so that the horse 
flies into a rapid four-beat gait. The rack is easy for the rider, 
hard for the horse. It is showy, and some horses can perform 
it at great speed. This gait has been officially named the "rack" 
by the American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association, hence 
the name "single foot" should not be used. It should be smooth, 
swift, and without side motion of the body or legs. 

Slow pace. — The slow pace, sometimes called the "stepping 
pace," is the true pace so modified that the impact on the ground 
of the two feet on a side is broken, the hind foot touching first, 
thus avoiding the rolling motion of the true pace. The slow 
pace is a comfortable and attractive gait. Many trainers do 
not favor it, for the horse easily falls into the habit of taking 
the true pace which is not a desirable saddle gait because it is 
rough and uncomfortable. The true pace is the worst gait a 
saddle horse can possess; the rider cannot rise to it and save 
himself as in a trot. 

Fox trot. — The fox trot is a slow, short-striding trot. It is 
not so popular as the running walk. It is a broken-time gait and 
difficult to describe. Some riders, when asked to exhibit the 
fox trot, simply restrain their horses to as slow a trot as pos- 
sible, seeking to pass that off as a fox trot, but the true fox 
trot is not accompanied by restraint. 

Running walk.— This is a slow gait, as are also the slow 
pace and fox trot. The running walk is faster than a flat-foot 
walk and is taught by gently urging the horse out of the ordinary 
walk, but restraining him from a trot or rack. It is intermediate 
between the walk and rack. The movement of the legs is 
more rapid than in a walk, but in about the same rhythm. The 
true running walk is usually characterized by a bobbing or 
nodding of the head, and, in some instances, by a flopping of the 
ears, in unison with the foot-falls. It is an all-day gait, easy 
and comfortable to both horse and rider, and equal to six miles 
an hour or more. It is, however, not as showy or attractive 
as the other gaits. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 
The Three-Gaited Saddle Horse. 



423 



This type is also styled the "walk, trot, canter horse," and 
the "park hack." This is the horse which conforms to English 
fashions, whereas the five-gaited saddler is exclusively an Amer- 
ican type. 

General appearance. — The walk, trot, canter horse usually 
has his mane pulled and his tail docked and set, in accordance 




Fig. 137. The Three-Gaited Saddle Type. 

Connoisseur, an excellent type of walk, trot, canter horse. 
Mr. Wm. Ritter, Columbus, Ohio. 



Owned by 



with English fashion, whereas the five-gaited horse wears a full 
mane and tail. Otherwise, the two types have much the same 
general appearance. Most three-gaited saddlers are American 
Saddle Horses which, for one reason or another, are marketed 
as three-gaited horses. There are also quite a number of walk, 
trot horses which are of Thoroughbred breeding, and some have 
a strong infusion of the blood of the American Trotter. In such 



424 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

cases, the head and tail are not carried so high, and there is not 
the evidence of style in form and action which characterizes 
the horse that is of American Saddle Horse breeding. 

Gaits. — This horse must show three gaits, and three only; 
these are the walk, trot, and canter. It is as objectionable for 
a three-gaited horse to show more than the gaits mentioned as 
for the five-gaited horse to know less than five gaits. 

While many people have adopted the walk, trot, canter 
horse in preference to the five-gaited type because they accept 
English horse fashions as law, there is still another reason why 
the American type with its five or more gaits is not favored by 
all riders. The reason is that there is no advantage in having 
a horse with all the gaits unless the rider is skillful enough to 
keep them distinct. If the man is less instructed than the horse, 
a sad confusion of paces is apt to result. A well-mouthed, well- 
suppled horse, with a good trot and a good canter is more useful 
to the ordinary rider than is one of the highly accomplished 
gaited saddlers; hence the popularity of the three-gaited horse, 
especially in the larger cities. Saddle horse breeders recognize 
this state of affairs and annually send to market a large number 
of three-gaited animals, as well as large numbers of five-gaited 
horses. 

Outside of the matter of gaits, the requirements for the 
five-gaited and three-gaited types are so nearly identical that 
one discussion will suffice for both. 

REQUIREMENTS OF THE SADDLE HORSE. 

The essential points to be looked for in a saddle horse are 
(1) beauty of conformation, (2) sure-footedness, (3) comfort- 
able seat, (4) best of manners, (5) knowledge of the gaits, (6) 
endurance and durability, and (7) dark solid color. 

1. Beauty of conformation. — Attractiveness of form and 
action is almost, if not quite, as valuable in the saddle horse as 
in the carriage horse. People who ride for pleasure take as 
much pride in the ownership of an attractive animal as do the 
owners of carriage horses. 

2. Sure-footedness. — Saddle action must, first of all, be 
safe and sure. A horse inclined to stumble is dangerous, and 
cannot be highly valued for saddle purposes, 

3. Comfortable seat. — Though a horse be sure-footed, 
he will not be of much use or value for saddle work unless he 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 425 

gives his rider a pleasant ride. Rough-gaited horses are not 
useful saddle horses. 

4. Manners. — The intimate relation between horse and 
rider calls for the very best of manners. Conduct that would 
be tolerated from a horse in harness may be very disagreeable 
if the horse is under saddle. The very nature of the use to 
which the saddler is put makes manners one of the prime es- 
sentials. 

5. Knowledge of gaits. — To a considerable extent the 
value of the saddle animal is measured by his knowledge of 
the gaits. As this is largely a matter of training, it is placed 
fifth in the list of requirements. There must be no mixing of 
gaits; each gait must be distinct, and the horse should change 
gaits promptly and easily at the signal from the rider. 

6. Endurance and durability. — This implies a good middle 
and enough substance combined with quality of bone and joints 
to insure good wearing qualities. Although a pleasure horse 
and hence not asked to do extreme labor, nevertheless real pleas- 
ure does not come to the rider who knows his horse to be delicate 
in bone, or otherwise liable to injury, if called upon to do hard 
work. 

7. Color. — Dark colors are much preferred, including 
bay, brown, chestnut, and black. Flashy colors such as dap- 
ple gray, roan, dun, cream, white, and parti-color are too con- 
spicuous for ordinary saddle use. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SADDLE TYPE. 

Size and weight. — These are quite variable depending on 
the character of the work and the weight of the rider. The 
height is usually from 15-1 to 15-3 hands, and the weight from 
1,000 to 1,150 pounds. A gaited horse of 15-1 hands and 1,000 
pounds is termed a "lady's saddler," or if a walk, trot, canter 
horse, a "lady's hack;" but for heavier riders larger animals 
are required, some men needing a horse standing over 16 hands 
and weighing 1,200 pounds or even more. For the sake of 
comparison the heights and weights of the various sub-types of 
saddle horses are here given : 

Type Height Weight 

Five gaited 15 —16 900—1200 

Three gaited 14-3 —16 900—1200 

Hunter 15-2 —16-1 1000—1250 

Cavalry 15 —16 950—1200 

Polo pony 14 —14-2 850—1000 



426 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Conformation. — The saddle horse is considered by many 
people to be the most stylish, beautiful, and finished of all horses. 
The principal requirements in conformation are (1) a long, 
refined neck, (2) nicely sloping pasterns and shoulders, and (3) 
moderately high and refined withers. The lines of the head 
should be cameo-like in sharpness and clean-cutness. An ideal 
saddler will naturally have a head showing an unusually kind 
disposition and high intelligence, for the intimate relation be- 
tween horse and rider demands the best of manners in the horse 
and thinking ability on both sides. The head should be set at 
the right angle on a very long, refined, nicely arched neck. Un- 
less there is lots of horse in front of the saddle, the appearance 
is spoiled, and a horse with a short, straight, heavy neck is not 
easily controlled. There should be easy flexion of jaw and neck, 
and this is possible only with a long, refined neck, properly 
arched. However, a "weedy" neck, that is, one lacking in 
muscular development, is not wanted. Much attention must be 
given to the slope of pastern and shoulder, for straight pasterns 
and shoulders are more objectionable in the saddle horse than 
in any other type because they are almost certain to make the 
horse a hard rider. Height and refinement of withers are nec- 
essary for a similar reason. Horses that are low in the forehand 
are not comfortable to ride. Furthermore, the saddle cannot 
be made secure on round, fiat withers, this being particularly 
true of the side saddle. The extension of the shoulder into the 
back and shortness and strength of coupling are very important. 
A straight or roached back does not afford an easy ride; there 
should be a certain degree of springiness, without any weakness 
or sway-backed conformation. The saddle horse is somewhat 
upstanding, and the head and tail should be smartly carried. 

Refinement and finish. — The saddle horse should possess 
a high degree of quality, and lots of smoothness from end to 
end. There should be greater refinement of head, ear, and 
bone than in the heavy-harness type of horse. The shoulders 
should be well laid in, and the hindquarters smoothly turned. 
The smoothness of the typical saddler is in marked contrast 
to the angular appearance of the roadster. Rotundity of body 
is a highly desirable feature. Levelness of croup is more im- 
portant in the saddle horse than in any other type; if a horse 
has a steep croup, the defect is magnified a great deal when 
the saddle is placed upon his back, and he presents a plain ap- 
pearance. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 427 

Action. — The action should be energetic, elastic, of mod- 
erate height, and especially there should be trueness of motion 
in all gaits. Gracefulness and ease of action are very desirable. 
A springy step resulting from sloping pasterns and shoulders 
is more essential in the saddle horse than in any other type. 
A straight-shouldered and -pasterned horse gives one a ride 
like a carriage without springs. Collected action, by which is 
meant harmony or unison of movement between fore and hind 
legs is necessary for gracefulness and comfort. It also means 
that the legs will be kept at all times under the weight, thus 
permitting of quick turns or any other evolutions desired. Col- 
lected action is largely a result of properly training the horse, 
and skill on the part of the rider. By pressure of the leg, or 
use of the whip or spur, the horse is kept alert, with the hind 
legs well under the body, while the hands bring sufficient pressure 
on the mouth to restrain the movement slightly, arch the neck, 
and secure a slight yielding of the jaw. If the action is not col- 
lected, the horse moves awkwardly and executes sudden com- 
mands in a clumsy fashion. 

Temperament and disposition. — The temperament should 
be sanguine, as in all other light horses. The disposition should 
be kind, willing, honest, and courageous. There should be 
docility with high spirit and animation. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

THE HUNTER AND POLO PONY. 

The hunter and polo pony differ rather markedly from the 
two types of saddle horses described in the preceding chapter, 
largely because they are required to do work of a highly special- 
ized nature in which performance is of greater importance and 
beauty less valued than with the gaited horse and park hack. 
Hence, the hunter and polo pony are given separate considera- 
tion in order that their peculiarities of type and requirements 
may be better emphasized. 

The Hunter. 

The hunter is the type used in following the hounds in fox 
hunting. He must be up to carrying his rider at good speed 
over long distances across country, jumping fences and ditches 
when called upon to do so. Like the park hack, this is an Eng- 
lish type. 

Although the American demand for this horse is some- 
what limited, the supply is still more so, resulting in high prices 
being paid for green horses of the hunter stamp. In England 
the demand is great, and American horses of hunter type have 
been much sought after by exporters. The English people 
have invested many millions of dollars in the sport of fox hunt- 
ing. There is an increasing demand for hunters in this country, 
and the demand will continue to grow because fox hunting, 
besides being a most healthful and invigorating amusement, is 
also a fashionable and popular sport in many sections of the 
country. It is estimated that within twenty-five miles of New 
York there are six hundred to eight hundred hunters in daily 
use, and that the suburbs of New York and Philadelphia total 
nearly fifteen hundred such animals. Many are well worth 
over $1,000, and a great majority are worth $400 to $500 each. 
It is probable that this census represents from $750,000 to 
$1,000,000 worth of horses for hunting. In Canada there are 
hundreds of excellent hunters, and the sport is on the increase. 
The Central West of the United States is beginning to take up 
fox hunting, several hunt clubs having been organized in that 
section during the last few years. 

428 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 429 

From the nature of the work, the hunter must be a horse 
of more size, ruggedness, and constitution than the other types 
of saddle horses. He must be a stayer at hard work, a jumper, 
and a horse of courage and decent manners. His bone must 
be of good size and of the right quality, and there must be an 
evidence of strength throughout his conformation. Other- 
wise he cannot long withstand the hardships of the hunting 
field. 

Height and weight. — With reference to height, much will 
depend upon circumstances. Weight-carrying hunters are al- 
ways more difficult to procure, and command higher prices. 
Short, light-weight men prefer 15-2 hands to 15-3, but height 
is quite subsidiary to conformation. Where fences are high, 
tall horses are necessary, but conformation must not be sac- 
rificed to this. Some hunters are nearly 17 hands. Hunters 
are classed as light, middle, and heavy weight according to their 
size and weight. Most of the hunting horses in use range in 
height from 15-2 to 16-1 hands, and in weight from 1,000 to 
1,250 pounds. 

General appearance. — The general appearance of the hunter 
should be that of a thin-skinned, big-boned, small-headed, fine- 
shouldered, deep-chested, clean-legged animal, with a neatly 
turned, compact body, and having a facial expression of great 
keenness, docility, and quick perception. 

Head. — The head should be refined; the forehead straight; 
the eyes large and prominent; the ears erect and thin; and the 
skin covering the head and face should also be thin, rendering 
the various prominences upon the skull easily apparent. The 
high-class hunter should have a mild, keen, and extremely in- 
telligent expression. 

Neck. — The neck must be long, narrow towards the poll, 
and the head should be carried obliquely, a lofty carriage being 
undesirable in the hunter. As the shoulders are approached, 
the neck should increase in width, be of moderate thickness, 
and clean along its upper border, with a closely-cropped mane. 
Many hunters are very weedy in the neck, and if this is the case, 
the horse is unable to recover himself in the event of a fall, as 
the muscles of the neck materially assist in raising the forepart 
of the body in its attempt to regain balance. 

Withers. — The upper border of the neck should pass into 
high withers, and most of the best hunters are high in this 
region. 



430 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



Shoulders. — When judging hunters, attention must be 
fixed upon the shoulders, not only while the horse is at rest, 
but also when jumping, as good shoulder action is one of the 
most important points in a hunter. In action it must be free 
and full, yet fine, because if the shoulders are logged up with 
muscles (heavy shoulders), the free action is interfered with 
when jumping. 

Chest. — The chest must be deep; in fact, it is self evident 
that a hunter should be "well-hearted" in order to provide plenty 




Fig. 138. A Typical Hunter. 

Surprise, a winner at the Royal Hunter Show and many other shows in 
England. Owned by Sir Merrick Burrells. 

of space for the free play of heart and lungs under extreme 
exertion. Width of chest is not required and often means 
bulky shoulders. 

Ribs.— A slightly flat side is desirable, though the ribs 
must not be short, otherwise the horse becomes "tucked up" 
or "washy" in appearance. 

Back, loin, and croup. — The back and loin should be of 
medium length, and the latter must be broad and clothed with 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



431 



powerful muscles, passing into neatly turned quarters — the 
so-called "goose rump" being of objectionable conformation. 

Arms and knees. — The arms should be strong and power- 
ful; the forearms of good breadth above and ending below in 
broad-jointed, clean knees. A stiff knee is certainly detrimental, 
as is also low daisy-cutting action, as such horses cannot freely 
flex and extend their joints during the leap. 




Fig. 139. The Hunter in Action. 

Mr. Edward B. McLean's Alarms jumping at the National Capitol Horse 
Show at Washington, D. C, in 1914, ridden by Mr. Louis Leith. 

Thighs and hocks. — The first and second thighs must be 
neatly turned, and clothed with powerful muscles. Particular 
attention must be paid to the hocks and to hock action; the 
hock joints must be broad, deep from front to back, clean in 
outline, and covered with thin skin. 

Gannons, fetlocks, and pasterns. — The cannons, fetlocks, 
pasterns, and feet demand special examination. The so-called 
"clean" legs are indispensable, and every horseman knows the 



432 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

meaning of this term. If a hunter's legs are of this descrip- 
tion, there is little fear that they will fill up after a heavy day's 
work. Associated with cleanness must be considerable sub- 
stance. The fetlocks must be capable of full flexion. The 
ideal pastern is one with a moderate degree of slope, broad in 
front, deep from front to back, and well rounded at the sides. 
It should be covered with thin skin. Pasterns that are too 
long, too oblique, or light in the bone, are of bad conformation; 
and short, upright pasterns are extremely objectionable for 
very evident reasons. 




Fig. 140. A Hunt Team and Pack of Fox Hounds. 

Feet. — The feet must be concave on their lower surface, 
proportionate in size, of good shape, well open at the heels, 
neither contracted nor cracked. 

Color. — In selecting a hunter, color seldom plays any part, 
and in the hunting field are horses of almost every color. Bay, 
brown, light or dark chestnut, and gray are the principal colors, 
more especially bay and brown, with either white or black points. 

Disposition. — This is of great importance in order to insure 
the safety of other horses, the hounds, and the rider. Some 
hunters are tremendous pullers, in fact, defy all attempts to 
hold them. There is great difference in temperament and dis- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 433 

position — one hunter will rush at his fences in a reckless and 
headstrong way, and another will even walk to his jump and 
clear it in a businesslike manner. It is because so many Thor- 
oughbreds have bad dispositions, that horses having a small 
amount of draft blood are often more desirable as hunters than 
are those of straight Throroughbred breeding. 

Production of hunters. — There is no breed of hunters. 
They are largely of Thoroughbred breeding, about seven parts 
Thoroughbred and one part cold (draft) blood being a gen- 
erally accepted formula in breeding hunters. This proportion 
is secured by mating a three-quarter-blood mare with a Thor- 
oughbred stallion of coi'rect type to get hunters. The infusion 
of cold blood gives greater size and ruggedness and a better 
disposition, but is said to lessen to some extent the staying 
qualities and gameness of the animal. Some most excellent 
hunters have come of straight Thoroughbred breeding. Ireland 
has long enjoyed a wide reputation for the rearing and sale of 
the best hunting horses — the name "Irish hunter" carrying the 
idea of super-excellence in this tjrpe of horse, even if some so 
named were in reality bred in places far removed from the Emerald 
Isle. 

The Polo Pony. 

Modern polo is largely a rich man's game. It is played 
with four mounted men on a side, the object being to drive a 
wooden ball between goal posts at the ends of a field 300 yards 
long and 120 to 150 yards wide. Each player carries a long- 
handled mallet of regulation design. It is a very fast game 
for both ponies and men, requiring quickness and precision. 

History of polo. — Polo existed in Persia and Turkey be- 
fore the tenth century. Thence it spread to Central Asia, 
Thibet, and Central India, being found at Calcutta in the fif- 
teenth and sixteenth centuries. It is said to have also existed 
in Japan a thousand years ago. English officers returning 
from India, in 1874, started polo at the Hurlingham Club, Ful- 
ham, England. Hurlingham has since been recognized as the 
great center of the sport, and the rules it has laid down have 
been accepted as authority in every country except America, 
where a few changes in these rules have been made. 

The game was introduced into this country in 1876, and 
from a small start made in that year it has steadily grown in 
favor. In 1911 there were 42 civilian clubs and 38 military 



434 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

posts in this country where polo was played. The game is 
now played the world over. When first introduced into this 
country, the ponies used were 13-2 hands high; from these, 
very tall men almost touched the ground with their feet. Larger 
and faster ponies were found more advantageous, and the stand- 
ard was fixed at 14 hands. It has since been raised to 14-1, 
and again to 14-2, the present standard. The rules limit the 
height of ponies to 14-2 hands or under, but this rule is not 
strictly enforced; the modern game is played at such high speed 
that only big 14-3 to 15-hand Thoroughbred or three-quarter- 
blood ponies are considered good enough for important matches. 
The range in weight is from 850 to 1,000 pounds. 

Demand for good ponies. — It is a thoroughly established 
fact that a player is no more proficient than his pony. The 
question of suitable mounts has been troublesome to American 
players from the very first. There was a time when western 
cow ponies made acceptable mounts for the game. They were 
brought to the East by the carload and sold at very moderate 
prices. A small percentage of these developed into really good 
polo ponies. As competition became keener, the demand for 
better and better ponies became more imperative, and today 
the cow pony has been replaced by what is virtually a Thor- 
oughbred horse of small size. In almost every case, the best 
modern ponies were sired by a Thoroughbred stallion. English 
ponies used for polo have always carried more or less Thor- 
oughbred inheritance; they are bred in the purple, trained two 
years, and carefully housed and fed. 

Five years ago a number of American ponies were valued 
at $1,000, and for some imported English ponies up to $2,000 
had been paid. At a sale in England, in 1898, a pony named 
Sailor, brought $3,750. In 1909 the American team which 
went to Hurlingham to compete for the world's championship 
was enabled to win largely because of the excellence of their 
ponies. These ponies were English-bred, and were reported 
to have cost high prices ranging up to $5,000. The American 
victory brought as much credit to English pony breeders as it 
did to the playing ability of the American team. In cham- 
pionship contests, four to six ponies are used by each player 
and some players maintain a big string of ponies from which 
to make selections for games. 

What constitutes a good polo pony? — The polo pony must 
combine speed with weight-carrying ability. He must be 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 435 

wiry, agile, and under proper training must acquire ability to 
quickly start, stop, and wheel. He must have a light mouth. 
He must be intelligent and learn to like the game and follow 
the ball. The disposition must be such as insures a level head, 
doggedness, docility, courage, and quickness. Much depends 
on the rider; there is danger of the pony becoming a puller if the 
rider is deficient, and some ponies become ball-and-mallet shy 
by being struck accidentally on the head and legs. A pony 
that pulls hard or becomes wild in a fast scrimmage, or swerves 
off the ball, is useless in first-class polo. 




Fig. 141. Polo Pony of Excellent Type. 

Owned by Mr. L. Waterbury and ridden by him when a member of the 
American team which won the International Cup from England. 

The game calls for lots of endurance and wearing quality, 
hence the conformation of middle, hindquarters, feet, and legs 
largely determines a pony's adaptability for the game. The 
object of breeders is to produce a pony 14-2 hands high, able to 
carry from 168 to 200 pounds for ten minutes in a fast game. 

The polo pony should be built like a weight-carrying hunter. 
His head should be well set on, wide between the jaws, with 
plenty of room at the throttle. He should have a big, clear, 
sound, prominent eye; small, pricked ears, indicative of alert- 



436 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



ness; a well-formed, well-arched, and muscular neck; a fine, 
sloping shoulder; not too fine at the withers, and his breast 
should be ample and in proportion to the remainder of the fore- 
quarters. His forearms should be big and powerful, the knees 
wide, particularly good under the knee, with a short cannon. 
The fetlocks should be large and clean, the pasterns well supplied 
with bone, and of proper slope and strength. The foot should 
be of good size, smooth, nicely shaped, the heels open, and the 
frog well developed and elastic. 

He should be deep from withers to sternum, and fairly 
wide through the chest; he should be short in the back, well 
coupled, ribbed close up to the hip, with plenty of muscle be- 



> 




Fig. 142. The Polo Pony in Action. 

hind the saddle. His thighs and quarters should be big and 
powerful, carrying down into the gaskin in well-defined masses 
of muscle, and the gaskin should bulge with muscle also. The 
hock should be broad and flat, with the natural prominences 
clean-cut and well developed. The tendon of Achilles should 
be well defined and powerful. There should be great bone be- 
low the hock, and in other respects the hind leg should be similar 
to the fore one. 

Production of polo ponies. — At present the only method 
of producing ponies such as the modern game demands is the 
mating of polo pony mares with a Thoroughbred stallion of 
approved type. However, a very large percentage of get is 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 437 

over height, and only a small percentage of foals that are of 
proper size have the conformation and disposition to become 
polo ponies. Evidently the breeding of this pony is not a propo- 
sition for the general farmer, but only for the specialist who 
makes a special study of the requirements of players and of 
methods of production. In Texas and other western states are 
a few ranches which make a business of breeding these ponies 
and training them, being equipped with polo "fields for this 
purpose. Beginning with western cow ponies, they have graded 
up their pony stock by the use of dwarf Thoroughbred sires 
until the present stocks are practically of straight Thorough- 
bred breeding. England has taken up the production of polo 
ponies in a more systematic manner than have we in this coun- 
try. In 1893 they formed the Polo Pony Stud Book Society, 
thus laying the foundation for pedigrees and for the establish- 
ment of a breed. The name of the society was later changed 
to the Polo and Riding Pony Society. Beginning in 1895, 
annual shows have been held by this organization, and enough 
progress has been made in breeding to indicate that in time a 
true breed of ponies for polo will be established. When this 
is accomplished, the production of polo ponies will not be so 
difficult or uncertain as it is today. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

MARKET CLASSES OF HORSES. 

The present rank and importance of the various horse 
markets is shown by the following figures giving the receipts 
for 1918: 

1. St. Louis 241,827 7. Omaha 22,212 

2. Chicago 87,820 8. Indianapolis 19,608 

3. Kansas City 84,628 9. Denver 14,599 

4. Fort Worth 78,881 10. Oklahoma City 12,678 

5. St. Joseph 39,260 11. Wichita 10,782 

6. Sioux City 23,306 12. St. Paul 6,541 



Total 642,142 

Auction rules.— At the large horse markets, horses are sold 
at auction under certain rules which are well known and under- 
stood by all horsemen who buy or sell at these markets. As 
the horse comes into the auction ring, a clerk on the auctioneer's 
stand displays a placard on which appears in large letters the 
rule under which the animal will be sold, such as "Sound," 
"Serviceably sound," "At the halter," etc. The rule under 
which the horse is sold is a guarantee made by the seller to the 
buyer. The buyer has until noon of the following day to refuse 
the horse, if upon examination and trial he finds that the animal 
is not as represented. 

The definitions of the principal rules which govern the 
sale of horses are given below. Exceptions to these rules may 
be announced from the auction stand, pointing out the defects, 
in which case they are recorded and go with the horse. 

1. Sound. — Perfectly sound in every way. 

2. Serviceably sound. — Virtually a sound animal, barring 
slight blemishes which do not interfere with his usefulness in 
any way. His wind and eyes must be good, but a spot or streak 
in the eye which does not affect the sight will be considered 
serviceably sound as long as the pupil of the eye is good. He 
must not be lame or sore in any way. 



111. Bui. 122, Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules, by R. C. 
Obrecht, has been used as the basis for much of this chapter and Chapter 
XXXVIII. The student will find it well worth while to refer to this bulletin,, 
especially for the excellent illustrations which it contains. 

438 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



439 



3. Wind and work. — The only guarantee this carries with 
it is that the animal has good wind and is a good worker. 

4. Work only. — He must be a good worker, but every- 
thing else goes with him. No other guarantee than to work. 

5. Legs go. — Everything that is on the animal's legs goes 
with him; nothing is guaranteed except that he must not be 
lame or crampy. He must, however, be serviceably sound in 
every other respect. 

6. At the halter. — Sold just as he stands without any 
recommendations. He may be lame, vicious, balky, a kicker, 
or anything else. The purchaser takes all the risk. The title 
only is guaranteed. 

Market requirements. — The factors that determine how 
well horses sell upon the market are soundness, conformation. 




Fig. 143. Horse Market at Union Stocli Yards, Ciiicago. 

Winding and trying-out horses immediately after purchase. If the 
horse is found to be not as represented when sold, the buyer has the privilege 
of returning him to the seller. 

quality, condition, action, age, color, training, and style. These, 
together with some minor considerations, are discussed below. 

Soundness. — The market demands that a horse be service- 
ably sound, by which is meant one that is as good as a sound 
horse so far as service is concerned. He may have slight blem- 
ishes, but nothing that is likely to cause lameness or soreness 
in any way. He must be good in wind and eyes, but may have 
small splints and puffs, and a little rounding on the curb joint. 
Broken wind, thick wind, sidebones, unsound hocks such as 
curbs, spavins, and thoroughpins, large splints, and buck knees, 
are discriminated against. 



440 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Conformation.^If a horse is to do hard work, with a min- 
imum of wear, and give the longest possible period of service, 
he must possess a conformation indicative of strength, endur- 
ance, and longevity, the indications of which are good feet, a 
good constitution, good feeding qualities, good bone, and sym- 
metry of conformation. Conformation has been discussed 
fully in connection with the various types described in preceding 
chapters, and no further discussion is necessary here. 

Quality. — Quality in a horse is of great importance, as has 
already been emphasized. A horse lacking in quality is a com- 
paratively cheap animal. 

Condition. — To be appreciated on the market, a horse 
must be fat and possess a good coat of hair, which gives him 
a sleek appearance. Condition is most important in draft, 
chunk, and wagon horses. When a green horse goes to the 
city, he loses weight during the first few weeks until he becomes 
used to the new conditions, and it is a decided advantage if he 
enters city work carrying a high finish. When a horse is fed 
to a high state of fatness, it invariably improves his spirit and 
style, as well as his form and weight. In some individuals, fat 
covers many sins. The man who sends his horse to market in 
finished form is offering the animal in most attractive condition. 
Condition is a very important item of value on the horse 
market. 

Action. — Action has been fully discussed in preceding chap- 
ters. We have seen that the requirements vary according to 
the type of horse, and that action is always a very important 
item of value, in some instances being as important a factor as 
any in determining the value of the horse. 

Age. — Horses sell best from five to eight years old. Heavy 
horses, such as drafters and chunks, sell best from five to seven 
years old, but a well-matured four-year-old in good condition 
will find ready sale. Carriage, saddle, and road horses sell 
better with a little more age, because they do not mature so 
early and their education is not completed as soon as that of 
heavy horses. They are most desired from five to eight years 
old. 

Color. — As a rule, the color of horses is of secondary im- 
portance, provided they possess individual excellence. Previous 
discussions of the various types have shown that color is of more 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 441 

importance in pleasure horses than in those used for business 
and utility purposes. 

Training and disposition. — Every class calls for a horse of 
good disposition and well educated for his work. Mere "green- 
ness" in a drafter, however, does not affect the price much if 
he is free from vice and bad habits, but carriage and saddle 
horses must be thoroughly schooled in order to realize good 
values. 

Sex. — Sex is not of great importance in the market. How- 
ever, geldings sell better than mares for city use, as there is some 
liability of mares being in foal, and if not, the recurrence of 
heat is objectionable. For farm use and southern trade, mares 
are preferred, because farmers buy horses with the expectation 
of breeding them. 

Breed. — The breed to which a horse belongs has but little 
or no influence upon his market value as long as he has individual 
excellence. 

Style and freshness. — If able to shape themselves well in 
harness, very plain horses often make a stylish showing, and this 
increases their value materially. They should be spirited and 
energetic, which generally comes from being well fed. They 
should be well groomed, the hair being short and sleek, lying 
close to the body, and possessing a luster which indicates health. 
Clipping of the foretop and legs should not be practiced in 
the case of heavy horses, as it is an indication of staleness or 
second-hand horses. The presence of the foretop and feather 
leaves no doubt as to freshness from the country. The feet 
should be in good condition and of a good length hoof, which 
is necessary to hold a shoe. 

Breeders make no real effort to supply some of the market 
classes of horses, either because the demand is very limited 
or the price too small. Such classes are supplied by careless 
breeding, by the mixing of tjrpes, and by the misfits which re- 
sult even when the breeding of horses is conducted as carefully 
as possible. 

The classification outlined below includes not only those 
classes of horses which are regular commodities on the large 
horse markets, but also other more rare and valuable classes 
which are only to be had from certain dealers and breeders 
who cater to an exclusive trade not represented at the large 
markets : 



442 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



Classes 



DRAFT HORSES 



CHUNKS 



WAGON HORSES 



CARRIAGE HORSES 



ROAD HORSES 



SADDLE HORSES 



MISCELLANEOUS 



Sub-classes Height Weight 

Hands Pounds 

Heavy Draft 16 to 17-2 1750 to 2200 

Light Draft 15-3 to 16-2 1600 to 1750 

Loggers 16-1 to 17-2 1700 to 2200 

Eastern Chunks 15 to 16 1300 to 1550 

Farm Chunks 15 to 15-3 1200 to 1400 

Southern Chunks 15 to 15-3 800 to 1250 

Expressers 15-3 to 16-2 1350 to 1500 

Dehvery Wagon 15 to 16 1100 to 1400 

Light Artillery 15-2 to 16 1150 to 1300 

Heavy Artillery 16 to 17 1400 to 1700 

Fire Horses 15 to 17-2 1200 to 1700 

Coach Horses 15-1 to 16-1 1100 to 1250 

Cobs 14-1 to 15-1 900 to 1150 

Park Horses 15 to 15-3 1000 to 1150 

Cab Horses 15-2 to 16-1 1050 to 1200 

Runabout 14-3 to 15-2 900 to 1050 

Roadsters 15 to 16 900 to 1150 

Five-Gaited Saddler .... 15 to 16 900 to 1200 

Three-Gaited Saddler . . . 14-3 to 16 900 to 1200 

Hunters 15-2 to 16-1 1000 to 1250 

Cavalry Horses 15 to 16 950 to 1200 

Polo Ponies 14 to 14-2 850 to 1000 

Feeders 

Range Horses 

Ponies , 

Plugs 

Weeds 



Draft Horses. 

A full description of draft type has already been presented, 
so that it is only necessary to mention the chief distinctions 
between the three sub-classes, Heavy Draft, Light Draft, and 
Loggers. 

Heavy draft. — These are the heavier weights of the draft 
class; they stand from 16 to 17-2 hands high, and weigh from 
1750 to 2200 pounds. 

Light draft. — -The light drafter is similar in type to the 
heavy drafter, but is smaller; they stand from 15-3 to 16-2 
hands, and weigh from 1600 to 1750 pounds. While 15-3 hands 
is accepted as the minimum height for light drafters, it should 
be understood that a 15-3-hand horse is less desirable than a 
taller horse, and he borders closely on the class known as eastern 
chunks. 

Loggers.^These are horses of draft type that are bought 
for use in the lumbering woods. This trade demands com- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



443 



paratively cheap horses, yet wants them big and strong. Be- 
cause of the prices paid, the trade is usually compelled to take 
the plainer, rougher horses of the heavy draft class, and some 
are slightly blemished or unsound, such as "off in the wind," 
small sidebones, curbs, wire marks, etc. Loggers should stand 
from 16-1 to 17-2 hands, and weigh from 1700 to 2200 pounds. 

Chunks. 

Usage has fixed the name of this class, which is significant of 
the conformation of the horse, rather than the use to which he is 




Fig. 144. Eastern Chunk. 

put. However, the prefixes given in the sub-classes are rather 
indicative of his use. Chunks are divided into three sub-classes. 
Eastern, Farm, and Southern. 

Eastern chunks.— At one time, this class was known as 
Boston chunks, but as the trade has widened to other cities 
they are known by the general name of eastern chunks. They 
are most generally used in pairs or three abreast to do the same 
work as draft horses; but may be used in pairs, in a four-in-hand, 
or in a six-in-hand team. The eastern chunk may be briefly 
and accurately described as a horse of draft horse type in all 
respects except size and weight. He is, then, a little drafter. 
He is usually a little more blocky and compact than the true 



444 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

drafter. He stands from 15 to 16 hands high, usually not over 
15-3, and weighs from 1300 to 1550 pounds, depending upon 
size and condition. Being required to do his work mostly at 
the walk, his action should be similar to that of the draft horse. 

Farm chunks. — Horses of this class may be found on the 
market at all seasons of the year, but during the spring months 
they form an important feature of the trade. They are bought 
to be used on the farm, and are in most urgent need during the 
season when crops are being planted. They are usually of 
mixed breeding, draft blood predominating, and are commonly 
known among farmers as "general-purpose" animals. Mares 
are more generally taken than geldings. For this class, low-set, 
blocky horses are wanted, not so heavy as the eastern chunks. 
Farm chunks are usually lighter in bone, and often slightly 
blemished or unsound. In general, the typical farm chunk 
should be a moderate-sized, all-round good individual, standing 
from 15 to 15-3 hands high, and weighing from 1200 to 1400 
pounds. Being lighter horses than the eastern chunks, they 
should be a little quicker and more active. The varied use to 
which horses are put on farms requires ability to trot readily 
if necessary. However, since the walk is their most important 
gait, they should be good walkers and do it with ease and rapidity. 

Southern chunks. — In some markets these are termed 
"southern horses," or "southerns." They are small horses 
that are taken by dealers to large southern cities and sold to 
southern planters for tilling their lands and for driving and 
riding. The southern farmer does not cultivate deeply, and 
the soils are light, consequently he does not require very large 
horses. However, each year the trend of the market is for 
larger horses for this trade. Southern chunks are small horses 
standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high, and weighing from 800 to 
1250 pounds. They are rather fine of bone, possessing an abun- 
dance of quality, and are more rangy in conformation than any 
of the other chunks, having more of the light horse blood. Many 
of them are similar to the cheaper horses used on the light delivery 
wagons of cities. They should have good action. The southern 
chunk is comparatively a cheap horse. 

Wagon Horses. 

This class includes horses useful for quick delivery. The 
demand is from cities and towns. These horses must be closely 
coupled, compactly built, with plenty of constitution and stamina. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



445 



They must be good actors, have a good, clean set of legs, with 
plenty of bone and quality, and a good foot that will stand the 
wear of paved streets. The sub-classes are Express Horses, 
Delivery Wagon Horses, Light Artillery Horses, Heavy Artillery 
Horses, and Fire Horses. Their breeding is a mixture of draft 
and light bloods. They are neither light nor heavy horses, but 
may be termed middle-weights. 

Express horses. — Express horses are used by express com- 
panies to collect and deliver goods to and from railroad stations. 
Different companies use horses of slightly different size and 
weight. For instance, if the business of a company is centrally 




Fig. 145. Express Horse. 

located in a city, and depots are not far apart, they use larger 
horses and load heavier; if the business is done in the outlying 
parts of a city, and the depots are a considerable distance 
apart, lighter horses with more action are wanted. They are 
used singly or in pairs, and the size of the horse will depend 
on the weight of the wagon. The lightest ones are called 
"money horses," as they are hitched to the lightest wagons 
to deliver valuables, this kind of work demanding quick service. 

The typical expresser is rather upstanding, deep bodied, 
and closely coupled, with good bone and an abundance of qual- 
ity, energy, and spirit. He should stand from 15-3 to 16-2 



446 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

hands high, and weigh from 1350 to 1500 pounds in good flesh; 
the average express horse is 16 to 16-1 hands high, and weighs 
around 1400 pounds in working condition. His head should 
be neat, his neck of good length, and his crest well developed. 
His shoulder should be obliquely set, coupled with a short, 
well muscled back and a strong loin. His croup should be 
broad, rounding, and well muscled, his quarters deep, and thighs 
broad. He should not be goose rumped, nor cut up in the flank. 
His underpinning should be of the very best, his cannons broad 
and clean, and his hoofs of a dense, tough horn. 

The express horse is required to do his work both at the 
walk and trot, the latter being the principal gait. He should 
be quick and active, and should keep his feet well under him 
and throw enough weight into the collar to move a heavy load 
at the walk, or a lighter load at the trot. As in the previous 
classes, he should be a straight-line mover, with possibly a little 
more knee and hock action. 

Delivery wagon horses. — Generally speaking, delivery wagon 
horses are not as large as expressers, and not as high-grade 
animals; most mercantile firms are not such liberal buyers as 
the express companies, and consequently they get a cheaper 
grade of horses. However, this is not always true, as some of 
the large department stores, whose deliveries serve as an ad- 
vertisement, will pay more for the very best than express com- 
panies, thus getting very choice animals. The conformation 
requirements are practically the same as for express horses, 
except they are not quite so large, standing from 15 to 16 hands, 
and weighing from 1100 to 1400 pounds. The action require- 
ments are the same as for express horses, though some are not 
as good actors. The demand for delivery wagon horses comes 
from all kinds of retail and wholesale mercantile houses, such as 
meat shops, milk houses, grocery houses, dry goods firms, and 
hardware merchants, for use on light wagons for parcel delivery. 
Some of the coarser, rougher ones are used on the huckster 
wagons, junk wagons, sand wagons, and by contractors for 
cellar excavating, street cleaning, railroad grading, or almost 
any kind of rough, heavy work. 

Light artillery horses. — These conform rather closely to 
the better grades of delivery wagon horses of the same weight. 
The following specifications, prepared under the direction of 
the Quartermaster General of the United States War Depart- 
ment, clearly set forth the requirements. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 447 

"The artillery horse for light and horse batteries must be 
sound, well bred, of a superior class, and have quality; of a kind 
disposition, well broken to harness, and gentle under the saddle, 
with easy mouth and gaits, and free and prompt action at the 
walk, trot, and gallop; free from vicious habits; and otherwise 
to conform to the following description: A gelding of specified 
color (no white or gray horses will be accepted), and in good 
condition, from 5 to 8 years old at time of purchase; height 
from 15-2 to 16 hands; weight from 1150 to 1300 pounds, depend- 
ing on height. Horses otherwise satisfactory which fall short 
of, or exceed, these limits of weight by not more than 50 pounds, 
due to temporary conditions, may be accepted . 



'^ ^ 




Fig. 146. Light Artillery Horse. 

"The artillery horse for light and horse batteries is required 
for quick draft purposes, and should be heavy enough to move 
the carriage ordinarily by weight thrown into the collar rather 
than by muscular exertion. Long-legged, loose-jointed, long- 
bodied, narrow-chested, coarse, and cold-blooded horses, as well 
as those which are restive, vicious, or too free in harness, will 
be rejected." 

Heavy artillery horses. — The U. S. Army specifications 
for artillery horses for siege batteries are as follows: 

"A gelding conforming to the above specifications for horses 
for light and horse batteries, except that the animal should be 
from 16 to 17 hands high, and weigh from 1400 to 1700 pounds, 



448 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



depending on height. A smart, active, draft horse, with plenty 
of bone and substance, and enough quality to insure staying 
power in fairly fast work, is required for this service." 

The work of the heavy artillery horse is much heavier and 
slower than that of the light artillery horse, and the type de- 
manded in the horse is quite different. Here it is a question 
of power rather than of speed, and the heavy artillery horse is 
in fact a light draft horse, though some fall somewhat short of 
the weight desired in light drafters. Heavy artillery horses 
might properly be classed with draft; or chunk horses, but for 




Fig. 147. Heavy Artillery Horses. 

convenience are included in the same general class as the light 
artillery horses. 

The demand for artillery horses is rather spasmodic, at 
some times being much greater than at others. Contracts are 
given to the lowest responsible bidder to supply them in large 
numbers at a specified time. Because of the rigid examination 
and requirements of official inspectors, some men have lost 
money in filling contracts. 

Fire horses. — The fire horse is more rangy in conforma- 
tion than the expresser, he being required to throw weight into 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 449 

the collar and often to take long runs. The requirements are 
very rigid, as will be seen by the specifications set forth by Mr. 
Peter F. Quinn, former Superintendent of Horses of the Chicago 
Fire Department: 

"The work required of a horse best suited to fire depart- 
ment services necessitates almost human intelligence. Such a 
horse must not only be well bred, sound in every particular, 
quick to observe, prompt and willing to respond to every call, 
but as well, ambitious to discharge his numerous and unusual 
duties under constantly differing surroundings. In selecting, 
the first requisites are tractability, good feet and legs, with bone 
and hoof of the best texture, a short, strong back, and well- 
proportioned fore- and hindquarters, well covered with firm. 




Fig. 148. Fire Horses. 

elastic muscles. For heavy engine companies and heavy hook- 
and-ladder trucks, a gelding of uniform and hardy color, in 
good condition, from five to seven years old, standing 16 to 17-2 
hands, and weighing from 1500 to 1700 pounds should be selected. 
Hose-carriage horses, same age; weight from 1200 to 1400 pounds; 
height, 15 to 16-2 hands." 

The demand for fire horses is very limited, coming from 
fire companies of cities. There are usually enough horses in 
the general supply to meet the demand. 

Carriage Horses. 

The chapter dealing with carriage horse type presents a 
detailed description of the general class known as carriage horses, 



450 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

and while this general class is subdivided into at least four smaller 
groups, known as Coach, Cob, Park, and Cab Horses, neverthe- 
less the differences between them relate mostly to size and weight, 
and practically the same conformation, style, and action is de- 
sired in all four sub-classes. Keeping carriage horse type in 
mind as applying to all four groups, only a few remarks are 
necessary in order to give the reader a correct idea of each sub- 
class. 

Coach horses. — Coach horses may be described as car- 
riage horses of large size. They should stand from 15-1 to 
16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1100 to 1250 pounds. The 
weight is not so important as the size. The essential thing is 
to get a horse that looks right before the large, heavy vehicle 
to which he is hitched. P'or instance, the most desirable height 
in horses for a park drag, body break, or heavy coach is 15-3 
to 16 hands, and they should weigh around 1150 to 1200 pounds. 
For a light brougham, a pair of 15-2 hand horses, weighing 
1100 pounds is more appropriate, A hearse requires black 
horses from 15-3 to 16-1 hands high, weighing 1200 to 1250, 
and without white markings. White horses are also used to 
some extent by undertakers. 

The demand for coach horses comes from wealthy men 
who maintain stables of fine horses and equipages for pleasure 
driving. They are hitched singly, in pairs, unicorn (sometimes 
called a spike, as one horse is hitched to the end of the pole, 
ahead of a pair), four-in-hand, and six-in-hand, to coaches, 
breaks, park drags, etc. A large percentage of coach horses 
have a predominance of American Trotting Horse blood, while 
a few are produced from the imported coach breeds; but since 
many of the imported so-called coach horses possess the common 
fault of grossness and coarseness, as a class they do not possess 
the requirements demanded by the American markets. 

Cobs. — Cobs differ from coach horses in size and in the 
use to which they are put. They are driven singly, in pairs, 
or tandem, usually by ladies, though they may be used by gen- 
tlemen as well. Cobs stand from 14-1 to 15-1 hands high, 
and weigh from 900 to 1150 pounds. The strongest demand 
comes for horses 14-3 to 15 hands high, and weighing from 1000 
to 1100 pounds. Being essentially a lady's horse, solid colors 
are wanted, without flash markings. They are usually hitched 
to a light brougham, phaeton, or some carriage that is not in- 
tended for carrying more than four. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 451 

Park horses. — The park horse, sometimes called the gig 
horse, is neither a large nor a small carriage horse, but is a car- 
riage horse of medium size. Many coach and cob horses meet 
the requirements for park horses so far as size and weight are 
concerned, yet cannot correctly be classed as park horses. This 
is because the park horse represents the cream of the carriage 
horse class. He is a higher-priced horse than either the coach 
or cob horse. He has the same conformation and action as 
they, but his conformation is more perfect, his action higher 
and more sensational, and his style and elegance more outstand- 
ing. They are hitched to a cart or gig, or may be driven tandem 
to the latter vehicle. They are also driven in pairs before mail 
phaetons and victorias. The limits for height and weight are 
15 to 15-3 hands and from 1000 to 1150 pounds, the most desir- 
able height being 15-1 to 15-2 hands, and the weight from 1000 
to 1100 pounds. It is readily apparent that the park horse is 
difficult to produce. Some are of Trotting Horse breeding, 
a few have been produced by crossing Hackney stallions on 
Trotting or Thoroughbred mares, but the best are of pure Hack- 
ney breeding; the latter method is attended by greater certainty 
of good results than any other method of production. 

Cab horses. — The cab horse is a comparatively cheap 
horse, and the requirements are not so rigid as for coach, cob, 
or park horses. They are used on cabs, coupes, hansoms, and 
other vehicles for public service in cities. They are much the 
same type as the coach horse, in fact many of them are the 
discarded and lower grades of the coach sub-class. Cab horses 
stand from 15-2 to 16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1050 to 1200 
pounds. The demand comes from livery and transfer companies. 

Road Horses. 

This class includes Runabout Horses and Roadsters. Run- 
about horses occupy an intermediate place between typical 
roadsters and carriage horses, but on account of their action, 
conformation, and the use to which they are put, may be more 
properly classed as road horses. 

Runabout horses. — A runabout horse is a rather short- 
legged horse, standing from 14-3 to 15-2 hands high, and weigh- 
ing from 900 to 1050 pounds. His head should be neat, ear 
fine, eye large and mild, neck of good length and trim at the 
throttle. The neck should be of medium weight, not quite 
so heavy as that of the coach horse, and not so light and thin 



452 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



as that of the roadster. The shoulder should be obliquely set, 
the withers high and thin, the back short, well muscled, and 
closely coupled to the hips by a short, broad loin. The barrel 
should be deep and round, the ribs well sprung, and the chest 
deep; the croup should be long and the hips nicely rounded. 
The legs should be well placed and heavily muscled, the bone 
broad and clean, and the pasterns of good length and obliquely 
set, joined to well-shaped feet. The runabout horse is not 
quite so stockily built as the cob, being not so heavy in neck 
and crest, not so full made and rotund in body, and not so heavy 
in quarters. The action is more moderate than that of a cob; 




Fig. 149. Runabout Horse. 



he does not need to be as high an actor, but should have more 
speed. The action should be bold, frictionless, and straight, 
such as is conducive to speed and beauty of form. 

The demand for runabout horses is for single drivers. They 
are used in cities and elsewhere on runabouts and driving wagons. 
They are of more or less mixed breeding, the predominating 
blood being that of the American Trotting Horse. 

Roadsters. — The chapter dealing with light-harness or 
roadster type sets forth the requirements for roadsters in form, 
action, and speed, and discusses the uses to which they are put. 
No further discussion is needed here. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



453 



Saddle Horses. 

The saddle horse class includes the five sub-classes known 
as Five-Gaited Saddlers, Three-Gaited Saddlers, Hunters, 
Cavalry Horses, and Polo Ponies. All of these, with the ex- 
ception of the cavalry horse, have received full consideration 
under the subject of types of horses in preceding chapters. 
Space need be given here only to a description of the cavalry 
horse. 

Cavalry horses. — The Quartermaster General of the War 
Department has sent out the following specifications as the re- 
quirements for an American cavalry horse: 




Fig. 150. Cavalry Horse. 



"Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection and any 
animal that does not meet with the requirements should be 
rejected. No white or gray horses will be accepted. The 
mature horse must be sound, well bred, of a superior class, and 
have quality; gentle and of a kind disposition; well broken to 
the saddle, with light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free 
and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop ; free from vicious 
habits; and otherwise to conform to the following description: 
A gelding of specified color, in good condition, from 5 to 8 years 
old at time of purchase; weighing from 950 to 1200 pounds, 
depending on height, which should be from 15 to 16 hands." 



454 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Cavalry remounts for the United States War Department 
are purchased as needed through contract orders, the contract 
being let to the lowest responsible bidder. In filling orders, 
dealers are often obliged to educate many of the recruits to 
the saddle, in order to meet the specific requirements. 

Miscellaneous Horses. 

Feeders. — Feeders are horses thin in flesh which are pur- 
chased to be put in condition and resold. They may belong^to 
any of the above classes, but the practice is more generally 
applied to draft horses, chunks, and wagon horses. The old 
adage, "a little fat covers a multitude of defects," is still true; 




Fig. 151. High-Class Pony. 

King Larigo, Champion Shetland pony stallion at the Panama-Pacific 
Exposition and Champion at the Iowa State Fair for five years. Owned by 
Mr. Geo. A. Heyl, Washington, 111. 

the value of flesh when put on thin horses can hardly be appre- 
ciated, unless one has seen them fleshed and placed again on 
the market. 

Range horses. — During certain seasons of the year, there 
may be found on the market horses bred and reared on the 
range, commonly known as "range horses." They are divided 
into two general classes, light and heavy, according to the pre- 
dominance of light or draft horse blood. For the sale ring, 
each of these classes is divided into carlots as follows: "colts," 
meaning weanhngs; "ones," the yearlings; "twos," the two- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 455 

year-olds; "dry stuff," the three-year-olds and over, those not 
suckling foals; and "mares and colts," the brood mares with 
foals at foot. In the aution ring, the price is stated per head 
and the buyer takes the entire lot. Most of the range horses 
find their way to the country, where they are usually broken; 
when educated, they may be returned to the market and may 
fill the demand for some of the commercial classes. 

Ponies.— Ponies of various grades and breeding are fre- 
quently found on the market, and are usually bought for the 
use of children and ladies. The characteristics distinguishing 
ponies from horses are not easily described. The principal 
distinguishing feature is that of height, a pony being 14 hands 
or under. But there are dwarf horses that do not have pony 
blood or characteristics that come within these limits. Other 
pony characteristics are a deep body with rounding barrel, 
heavily muscled thighs and quarters, croup not drooping, and 
width well carried out, all of which the small horse does not 
usually possess. The neck is often short and heavy, though 
this is not a desirable quality. Ponies are essentially chil- 
dren's horses, and they must be kind and gentle in disposition, 
with as much spirit as is compatible for their use. There are 
no special requirements for weight, the limits being quite wide. 
They should be straight-line movers, and the more knee and 
hock action they possess, the higher prices they will bring, 
other things being equal. The Indian pony, or "cayuse" as 
he is sometimes called, is larger; he is a descendant from the 
native range stock, and is classed on the market as a range 
pony. 

Plugs. — Plugs are worn-out, decrepit horses with but little 
value. This class is too well known to need description. 

Weeds. — Weeds are leggy and ill-proportioned horses 
lacking in the essential qualities, such as constitution and sub- 
stance. They have little value for service of any kind. 

Prices for Horses at Chicago. 

Prices of the various classes compared. — Prices during 
1918 averaged as follows upon the Chicago market,* figures 
for preceding years being given for comparison : 



'Year Book of Figures, 1919. 



456 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Class 1918 1917 1916 1915 1910 1902 

Draft horses $210 $215 $210 $203 $200 $166 

Southern chunks 100 100 96 88 87 57 

Express horses 170 175 169 166 161 135 

Carriage horses (pairs) 425 450 470 473 473 450 

Drivers 165 165 160 164 172 145 

Saddle horses 190 190 187 179 177 151 

General use 150 150 146 155 144 117 

The above is a rather incomplete report, but it is all that 
is available. The total value of all horses received at Chicago 
in 1918 was $16,246,700, and their average value was $185. 
The average was $185 in 1917, $180 in 1916, $180 in 1915, $183 in 
1914, $188 in 1913, and $179 in 1912. In connection with these 
figures it should be remembered that many of the best loads 
of horses from the cornbelt are taken directly to the eastern 
cities for sale, being gathered by country buyers who consign 
them to eastern dealers. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 
HORSE BREEDING. 

This is a broad subject which may be considered and dis- 
cussed at length from many points of view. Only brief treat- 
ment is possible here, however, in which the most common mis- 
takes in horse breeding are pointed out and their remedies 
briefly discussed. This is written from the standpoint of the 
farmer who desires to breed horses in a moderate or small way 
for the profit there is in it. 

Horse production on the small farm. — The advantages of 
intensive farming have been widely discussed for a number 
of years. Intensive farming is farming on a small scale, but 
doing it perfectly, hence realizing the largest possible return 
on a moderate investment. Horse production on a small scale, 
as discussed here, is similar to intensive farming. It means 
the ownership of one or two pairs of high-class brood mares, 
preferably purebreds, which are used to do part or all of the 
farm work, and which are given the very best care and atten- 
tion. They are bred only to high-class stallions of the same 
breed as themselves, and during pregnancy they are well cared 
for, well fed, and not overworked. As foaling time draws near, 
they are watched carefully and assistance is given if necessary. 
They foal on clean bedding in a clean stall, or, better still, at 
pasture, and the foals are immediately treated to prevent navel 
ill. The foals are given the best of care and are carefully trained, 
being halter broken as early as possible and made gentle by 
proper handling. They are kept growing after they are weaned, 
and in due time are carefully and thoroughly educated in harness 
or under saddle, as the case may be. This is intensive horse 
production. 

Intensive horse raising therefore means keeping a few 
extra-good brood mares, and each year producing a few extra- 
good foals which may be grown out by the breeder or sold as 
weanlings or yearlings to be developed by someone else. The 
first costs under this plan are not necessarily less than where 
a large number of the average kind of brood mares are kept. 
Good brood mares cost considerable, but they are the only kind 
on which large profits may be made. If this plan seems im- 

457 



458 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



practicable because purebred mares are expensive, why not 
reach the same end by buying a weanling or yearling filly of 
the desired breed, growing out this filly to breeding age, and 
retaining her best filly foals for breeding purposes? In this 
way, given a few years' time, it is easily possible to get on an 
intensive footing with as many mares as are required. 

We have had enough of the average kind of horse produc- 
tion in this country; in fact, far too much of it. It has been 
demonstrated beyond all doubt that it pays much better to 




Fig. 152. Correct Type in the Draft Stallion. 

Fyvie Baron, Champion Clydesdale stallion at the 1913 International. 
Owned by Conyngham Bros., Wilkesbarre, Pa. Note his maculinity, quality, 
style, symmetry, correct position of legs, nice pasterns, and good feet. 



keep a few extra-good brood mares and raise carefully a few 
good foals, than it does to keep a lot of cheap mares and pro- 
duce a lot of cheap horses,, without feed enough to give any of 
them a fair chance. Today the tendency is for the cheap horse 
to bring less, and for the good horse to bring more than ever 
before. The motor has helped to bring about this condition, 
and the writing on the wall should be heeded. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 459 

The writer once visited a farm where he was shown a sixteen- 
year-old grade draft mare of good type and individuality. On 
the same farm were five good mares, all out of the aged mare 
mentioned. Other of her numerous offspring had been sold 
at good prices. The mare had made the farmer money and 
was still making it, for at the time of this visit she had a fine 
filly foal by her side. But the owner was not satisfied. "Think 
how much more money I would have made," said he, "if I had 
begun with a purebred registered mare. If the old mare had been 
purebred and registered, the value of every one of her foals 
would have been easily doubled, and it wouldn't have cost a 
cent more to raise them." The lesson to the young breeder 
is clear, — start right, even if it means starting slowly by buying 
one young registered filly, and from her building up a breeding 
stud of fine mares. 

The farms of the Middle West and East are well adapted 
to the intensive plan of horse production, because most of the 
farms are not large, and usually the teaming is done by the 
owner himself, or by one or two hands who are always under 
close observation. On big farms, with incompetent and ever- 
changing help, if valuable brood mares are kept, they are liable 
to be injured if used to do the farm work. The writer is not one 
of those who advocate keeping brood mares in idleness. They will 
be healthier and will produce stronger foals if worked in modera- 
tion. The plan should call for working the brood mares, but not 
working them as hard as we work geldings or mules. Let them 
earn their board, and board them well. They may be worked 
well up to foaling time if care is taken not to back them to a 
heavy load, or put them to a hard strain. Mares have been hur- 
riedly unhitched and unharnessed while cultivating corn or doing 
some other moderate work, and have foaled thrifty, well-developed 
foals, the equal of any. But such mares have been well fed and 
cared for during pregnancy, and they should be given as long a 
vacation on pasture after foaling as the farm work will permit. 

The most profitable horse breeding in France, Belgium, 
England, Scotland, and America is done on the intensive plan, 
on farms of moderate or small size, by farmers who are good 
practical horsemen with a taste for doing things well. There 
is ample room in the United States for much more horse rais- 
ing on this plan, and we have always had too many inferior 
mares, too many cheap stallions, and too many cheap horses 
hunting buyers. 



460 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



Choosing a type to breed. — What type of horse shall the 
farmer breed? The answer depends upon how much capital 
is available to put into the business, upon the personal quali- 
fications of the breeder, and also upon his personal preference 
as to type. To some extent, the choice will depend upon the 
location of the farm, and upon the crops that can be grown. 
It will ordinarily require more capital to engage in the breed- 
ing of light horses than in the breeding of draft horses. Light 
horses especially require more expensive equipment to accom- 




Fig. 153. Correct Type in the Draft Mare. 

Coldham Surprise, Champion Shire mare at the 1913 International. 
Owned by Mr. Geo. M. McCray, Fithian, 111. Note her roomy middle, 
faultless top line, symmetrical form, abundant muscling, and large bone. 
She has ruggedness and strength combined with quality and femininity. 

plish the training and finishing without which they sell at com- 
paratively moderate prices. Because of temperament and 
disposition, some men are more successful with one type of horse 
than another. The man who intends to engage in the breeding 
of horses should ask himself the following questions regarding 
any or all types he may have under consideration. 1. Am I 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 461 

familiar enough with the type and the methods of its production 
to know what I am striving to produce and how to produce it? 
2. Provided I can produce the type successfully, how can I dis- 
pose of my animals, and what are the chances of realizing full 
value for my stock? 3. Are my buildings, fences, land, and 
crops adapted to the production of horses, and if not, can I 
remedy the shortcomings? 

Advantages of draft type. — In the majority of cases, the 
best t3rpe for the farmer to produce is the draft horse. It has 
many advantages. The brood mares are much better suited 
to do the work of the farm than are any of the light, horse types. 
Practically no special training is needed to make the drafter 
ready for market, and he is marketable at a younger age than is 
ordinarily true of the types of light horses. If he is kept free 
from wire cuts and other blemishes, and is fat and well groomed 
when offered for sale, he should realize full value. The carriage 
horse or saddler, on the other hand, requires months of handling 
in order to give him a good mouth and develop his action or 
gaits, as the case may be. Furthermore, a wire cut or other 
blemish is much more serious with these types than with the 
drafter. They require more care and attention from birth to 
selling time, and require a greater age to finish them for market. 
It is also true that there are fewer misfits in breeding draft 
horses than with any other tjrpe of horse, in other words, re- 
sults are more certain and sure. The production of draft horses 
fits into general farming better than the production of any of 
the light horse types. For these various reasons, the draft 
horse is of greatest interest to most farmers, and is most fre- 
quently selected by farmers who take up horse breeding. 

Light types require greater skill. — Let it be understood, 
however, that the foregoing arguments are not intended to 
discourage the breeding of types other than the drafter. The 
point is that carriage, saddle, and roadster horses are more 
difficult to produce than drafters, and but few persons, com- 
paratively, are qualified to breed them successfully. The pro- 
duction of light horses requires a higher order of skill both in 
breeding and salesmanship than does the production of the 
draft horse, and when this is supplied, light horse breeding is 
a profitable enterprise. Hence the selection of the type to 
breed should be governed largely by the ability of the man who 
is to supervise the breeding, provided, of course, he is to work 
under conditions not unfavorable to the type he is best qualified 



462 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



to produce. Failures in horse breeding, as in most other things, 
usually have been due to the man believing himself capable 
of doing things for which he was not qualified. 

Perhaps in no other field have so many breeders found 
themselves mistaken regarding their abilities as in the breed- 
ing of the trotting horse. This type appeals strongly to the 
majority of Americans, and many farmers and others have 
believed that they knew a safe and sure system of breeding 
for speed. Even in the best of hands, the breeding of trotters 
is very doubtful as to results, and only a small percentage of 
the foals ever attain anything noteworthy on the turf. Speed 
is an elusive quality dependent on such a rare combination of 
good qualities in the animal as to make results in breeding very 




Fig. 154. A Highly Successful Sire. 

Undefeated Belgian stallion, Farceur, and eight of his get. This group 
contains the first and second prize get of sire, Iowa State Fair, 1915 and 1916; 
the first prize futurity filly and champion mare at Iowa in 1916; the world's 
champion group at the Panama-Pacific Exposition in 1915; the first, second 
and third prize two-year-old fillies and champion mare at the International, 
1916. Owned by Mr. Wm, Crownover, Hudson, la. Farceur was sold in 
1917 for $47,500 to Mr. C. G. Good, Ogden, la. 

uncertain, and it should be understood that only a few men 
possess the special qualifications necessary to success in breed- 
ing this type of horse, and that only the wealthy, who are will- 
ing to accept the pleasure and fascination of the undertaking 
as partial remuneration for the capital invested, can ordinarily 
afford to take up this difficult art. A few men of moderate 
means have made a success with trotters by selling yearlings 
as "prospects" to be developed in the hands of some one else, 
but even this method is uncertain as to results financially. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 463 

Pony breeding offers a good field for profit to those who 
are in a position to reach the trade for Shetland, Welsh, or Hack- 
ney ponies. The breeding of polo ponies, however, is as yet 
a very uncertain undertaking comparable to breeding trotters. 

Selecting a breed. — After the type of horse has been chosen, 
it is next in order to decide what breed of that type shall be 
selected. The choice of a breed is not so serious or important 
a matter as the selection of a type or the selection of the indi- 
viduals which are to compose the stud. It will depend largely 
upon the personal fancy of the breeder, although in some types 
of horses in certain localities, one breed may be so much liked 
or another breed so much disliked as to make it advisable for 
the new breeder to conform to the choice of the community, 
if it is possible to do so. He can then profit from the exper- 
ience and advice of his neighbors, he will benefit from a greater 
number of local sales of his stock, and there will be more stallions 
to select among when mating his mares. After deciding what 
type shall be produced, the mistake is sometimes made of select- 
ing a breed to work with which does not rightly belong to that 
type. For example, efforts are sometimes made to produce 
the carriage type from trotting-bred stock, or from a saddle 
breed, and while many excellent heavy-harness horses have 
sprung from these breeds, they have been largely in the nature 
of accidents in breeding, and ordinarily they cannot be pro- 
duced in this way with enough regularity to make such a plan 
of breeding advisable. 

Selecting the individuals. — We now come to the matter of 
selecting the individuals which are to compose the stud. First 
of all, they must be sound; and this is a matter to which many 
farmers pay too little attention. Buyers offer the best prices 
for sound stock, and the farmer has too frequently sold his 
young mares that were sound, and has retained those with 
sidebones, ringbones, spavins, curbs, etc., for breeding pur- 
poses. This is radically wrong and a very short-sighted prac- 
tice. Soundness is of very vital importance in every type of 
horse, and especially in animals used for breeding purposes. 
The individuals should also be true representatives of the type 
to which they belong. Whether or not the brood mares should 
be purebred depends on the amount of capital available and 
on the type of horse selected. If possible, it is preferable that 
they be purebred, registered mares. However, some very 
profitable work in producing drafters for the market has been done 



464 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

with good grade draft mares. In such cases, these mares have 
shown excellent draft type, even though they were not eligible 
to registry. Purebred draft mares cost considerably more to 
buy, but have the very great advantage of having their foals 
eligible to registry, and hence of greater market value. In 
breeding carriage, saddle, and roadster horses, it is essential 
in most cases that purebred mares be used. 

Well-developed feminine character and a good disposition 
are fundamental qualities in a brood mare, as such mares are 
usually more regular breeders, better mothers, and more easily 
handled and worked than are mares of masculine appearance 
or mean, vicious, or highly nervous disposition. The brood 
mare should have a long underline, and a deep, full-made, roomy 
middle. 




Fig. 155. Blood Will Tell. 

Grade Shire mares shown at the Bushnell, 111., horse show in 1914, all 
bred and owned by Mr. Jonas McGrew, Walnut Grove, 111. All of these 
mares, and the dams and grandams of some of them, were sired by Shire 
stallions imported by the Truman Pioneer Stock Farm, Bushnell, 111. 

Well-developed draft fillies may be bred when two years 
old; others should not be bred until three years old. The dura- 
tion of pregnancy in mares is quite variable, but averages about 
340 days. A two-year-old stallion may breed 8 or 10 mares 
in the season, a three-year-old from 25 to 30, and a four-year-old 
from 40 to 50. The breeding season lasts from 100 to 115 days, 
and it is important not to use the stallion too heavily at any 
time. A two-year-old may safely be allowed to cover one mare 
every five days; a three-year-old, three a week; a four-year-old, 
three every two days; and a mature horse should be limited 
usually to two covers daily, and perhaps occasionally he may 
make three. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 465 

A sound, purebred stallion that is true to type and a good 
individual in every way is the only kind worthy of patronage. 
If there is no such horse in the community, it will pay to ship 
the mares a long distance to reach such a one. If possible, 
it is always best to patronize a stallion that has proved him- 
self a sure breeder and a getter of good foals. There would not 
be the great number of unsound, mongrel, and inferior stallions 
standing for public service if there did not exist a demand for 
them on the part of mare owners. There can be only one expla- 
nation so far as the owner of the mare is concerned, and that is 
the saving in the amount of the service fee; but no more short- 
sighted practice can be followed, it having been demonstrated 
in almost every community that the added value of the foal 
from a high-class stallion, as compared with the foal by a cheap 
horse, repays the extra service fee many times over. It costs 
little more to raise a good foal than an inferior one, and the 
foal by the cheap stallion is not ordinarily a profit maker. So 
many breeders have shown a lack of judgment in this matter, 
and horse stocks have deteriorated to such an extent in some 
states on account of the large number of mares bred to cheap 
horses, that stallion laws have been enacted which debar un- 
sound stallions from public service, and require that placards 
be posted on the stable door telling whether the stallion is a 
purebred, cross-bred, grade, or mongrel. Every state needs a 
law of this kind, modified to suit its needs. 

Results of careless breeding. — Another evil in need of 
remedy is the too common practice of mixing the types of horses. 
Heavy mares are mated with trotting stallions in order to pro- 
duce an animal for road use, or with no particular idea in the 
mind of the mare owner except to "get a colt." Light-weight, 
light-boned mares, without any semblance of draft qualities, 
are mated with draft stallions in the hope of getting a draft 
foal, or again simply to "get a colt." The results of such breed- 
ing are to be seen on every hand in the country, and a visit to 
any large horse market reveals the fact that a large percentage 
of the animals offered for sale are of no particular type or market 
class, because they have a variegated ancestry, the result of 
indiscriminate crossing of heavy and light horses. One is at a 
loss sometimes to know by what method some market offerings 
were produced. The result is a lot of cheap horses adapted to 
no particular work, which net the producer a loss in most cases 
and seldom yield a profit. Breeders must learn to stick to type. 



466 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

The experience of all successful horse breeders teaches no other 
lesson more forcibly than this. 

Pedigree not always an indication of merit. — In the minds 
of many people, the words "purebred," "registered," and "im- 
ported" have a charm much greater than they deserve. Far 
too often, glaring faults of individuality or even serious un- 
soundness are passed with light criticism because the animal 
in question is eligible to one or more of these fascinating names. 
After all, one must conclude that there is something in a name. 
It is a fact that some purebred horses are practically worthless 
for breeding purposes. If an animal is purebred and registered, 
its value is very greatly increased, provided it is a good indi- 
vidual of useful type; but if the animal is decidedly faulty in 
conformation, or has serious unsoundness, its pedigree and 
registration number are of small account, and the animal is of 
little or no value for breeding purposes. 

Feed and care. — Every successful breeder is a good feeder 
and caretaker, for no matter how excellent the ancestry of a 
foal may be, its inherited good qualities cannot reveal them- 
selves unless the foal is provided with good quarters and plenty 
of the right feed with which to build up and grow. Feed and 
care are fully as important as parentage in producing good 
horses. 

Summary. — In conclusion, therefore, follow the intensive 
rather than the extensive plan of horse production; select the 
type to breed after careful study of the situation; select a breed 
which truly belongs to that type; select sound individuals pos- 
sessing a high degree of individual excellence; breed to a strictly 
high-class, purebred stallion, regardless of the amount of his 
service fee; if there is no such stallion in the immediate neigh- 
borhood, ship the mares whatever distance is necessary to reach 
a high-class horse; patronize a tried and proven sire if possible; 
stick to a definite line of breeding — do not mix the types indis- 
criminately; raise a class of foals that merit plenty of good feed 
and care, and supply the same; be conservative in your judg- 
ment and appreciative of the fact that the breeding of horses is 
an enterprise which repays careful study of all departments of 
the business. 

A Few Statistics. 

The United States, with 21,534,000 horses and 4,925,000 
mules on January 1, 1919, has over 25 per cent, of the world's 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 467 

horses and over 50 per cent, of the world's mules. During the 
World War, or from 1914 to 1918 inclusive, the United States 
exported 1,054,000 horses, valued at $219,459,000, and 357,255 
mules, valued at $70,926,000. 

Spain is the only country which has more mules than horses. 

The average value of horses in the United States in 1919 
was $98.48, while the average value of mules was $135.59. These 
figures include all ages. Utah was the only state in 1919 which 
reported a higher average valuation for horses than for mules, 

Iowa, with 1,567,000 head, had more horses in 1919 than 
any other state. The other leading states in order of rank were 
Illinois, Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Minnesota, Ohio, 
North Dakota, and South Dakota. These ten states have a 
little more than half of the horses of the country. 

The leading mule-owning states are Texas, Missouri, Georgia, 
Mississippi, Arkansas, Alabama, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Kansas, 
and Kentucky, in the order given, while no mules were reported 
in 1919 from. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Six states own more mules 
than horses, these being North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgi a, 
Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 
THE MULE. 

The various breeds of the ass belong to one species known 
as Equus asinus. The various breeds of the horse belong to a 
distinct species known as Equus caballus. The male ass is 
called a jack, and the female a jennet. The cross of a jack on 
a mare produces a hybrid known as a mule. The cross of a 
stallion on a jennet produces a hybrid known as a hinny. Al- 
though it is often stated that the hinny and mule differ in ap- 
pearance, the hinny tending to be more like a horse and the 
mule tending more toward the type of a jack, there is no differ- 
ence in type and appearance between them. Very few hinnies 
are produced, as jennets are in such demand for producing jacks 
that they are seldom bred to stallions. Mules and hinnies do 
not breed, being infertile. As the saying goes, "the mule has 
no pride of ancestry, and no hope of posterity." 

Breeds of jacks. — A number of breeds have been imported 
to the United States, including the Catalonian, Poitou, Maltese, 
Andalusian, Majorcan, and Italian. American breeders have 
made various crosses of these breeds and have developed by 
selection the so-called American -Jack, which may be considered 
a distinct breed. 

Best type of jack.— The best jack for mule breeding is one 
having as much size, weight, and substance as possible, without 
coarseness. He should stand 16 hands or over. Very few 
jacks exceed 16-1 hands and 1150 pounds. He should be lengthy 
and wide in form, with a straight, strong top, a well-shaped 
head, large and well-set ears, straight legs showing plenty of 
bone, feet of good size, shape, and texture, and a rather fine, 
glossy coat of hair. He should be active and show considerable 
style and spirit. The best color is black with light nose and 
belly, as a jack of this color will get the best-colored mules out 
of mares of all colors. 

Best mares for mule breeding. — Mares standing 15-3 to 16-1 
hands, and showing some evidence of draft blood, yet having good 
finish and quality, produce the best mules. These mares weigh 
from 1350 to 1500 pounds. The mare should have a roomy 
middle, and she should also have large, wide, and good feet. 

468 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



469 



The mule. — Big, heavy mules bring the highest price if they 
show smoothness and good quality. The very best stand 16-3 to 
17-2 hands and weigh 1600 to 1700 pounds. Few reach 1800 
pounds. Mules do not weigh as heavy for their height as horses. 
Mules are judged by practically the same standards as horses. 

The mule and horse compared. — Mules are more sure- 
footed than horses, pick their way more carefully, and look out 
for themselves better than a horse. Mules are more intelligent 
than horses, and are more apt to learn to refuse or avoid hard 




Fi}". l.'JG. ( orrecl Tjpt' in the .Jack. 

Limestone Monarch, Champion at the Missouri State Fair in 1912, and 
Reserve Champion at the Panama-Pacific Exposition in 1915. Height 15-3 
hands; weight, 1212 pounds. Bred and owned by Mr. L. M. Monsees, Pettis 
County, Mo. 

or unpleasant work. When a mule gets tangled up in wire or 
into some other predicament, he usually stands quietly until 
released, whereas a horse often becomes excited and struggles 
even though he lacerates his legs and body and punishes himself 
very severely. Mules usually accept their lot and plod along 
at their work without wasting energy in fretting or nervousness, 
while worry rather than work often keeps a horse thin. Mules 
are less sensitive than horses; they accept more abuse and rough 
handling, and get along better under an incompetent driver. 



470 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



Mules stand hot weather better than horses. Mules are less 
subject to digestive troubles and founder. A mule will not 
gorge himself as a horse often does if he gets into the feed bin 
or has access to too much feed. The mule's foot has a very- 
thick, strong wall and sole which enables the foot to endure 
the shock and concussion on hard pavements particularly well. 
Mules are less subject to foot troubles which cause lameness, 
and their feet are less affected by continuous shoeing. Mules 
are usually stabled more cheaply than horses. They are often 




Fig. 157. Prize- Winning Mules. 

Champion pair of mules at the Iowa State Fair, 1915, six years old, weigh- 
ing 1600 and 1620 pounds. The off mule (on the left of the picture) was 
champion mule of the show. Owned by F. L. Hutson & Son, State Center, la. 

kept in sheds or pens in which a number are turned loose to- 
gether. Aged and second-hand mules sell better than aged 
and second-hand horses. Mules require less veterinary atten- 
tion and are less often incapacitated for work than horses. Mules 
once worked together as a team are harder to separate than 
horses. This may be an advantage, or it may in some cases 
prove a detriment. Mules are more uniform in form and color 
than horses, and are easier to match into teams. 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 471 

On the other hand, the mule has some shortcomings as 
compared to the horse. He has not the weight for the heaviest 
draft work. Because of the small size of his foot he is more 
apt to slip on pavements at a hard pull. Furthermore, the 
mule's habit of pushing directly forward against the collar, 
instead of crouching and lifting like a draft horse at a hard pull, 
also results in slipping on pavements. Mules do not work well 
in soft ground. The small foot of the mule does not bear him 
up, and he is usually much more timid under these conditions 
than is the horse. Mules will avoid a muddy spot or puddle 
of water if they can. The wilfulness and trickiness of many 
mules and their lack of spirit makes it less of a pleasure to drive 
the average mule than the average horse. The mule has a 
harder mouth. Too often it takes a gag bit to hold him and a 
black-snake whip to make him go. Mules are not adapted 
to use in the artillery, as they are gun-shy, usually lack speed, 
and do not respond to commands quick enough. They are not 
so dependable as horses in an emergency. 

Mr. George E. Wentworth, Superintendent of the Chicago 
Union Stock Yards Horse Market, in an interesting article* 
entitled "Why Use Adulterated Horses?" discusses the place 
of the mule in warfare as follows: "They say the mule can stand 
more heat, but cavalry regiments in South America, oouth 
Africa, Arabia, India, China, or Morocco are not mounted 
upon the sure-footed, swift, enduring, and patient mule. The 
Cossacks did not pursue Napoleon from Moscow on the backs 
of mules, nor did the men of Marion and Sumpter, Stuart or 
Sheridan win their victories astride the progeny of a jack. The 
Crusaders panoplied in full armor, fought Saladin and his Emirs 
over the dry and arid dusty deserts of Palestine mounted upon 
Norman and Arabian horses. Armies trust live weight to 
horses, dead weight to mules." 

As mules do not breed, there is no opportunity for profit 
to the farmer from this source. The mule's inability to breed 
is something of an advantage in the city and in the army, as 
there is always the danger of a mare being in foal when she 
is purchased, and if she is it causes trouble and annoyance in 
a city stable or in the army; she must either be sold or kept 
idle for a time. From all standpoints, however, the mule's 
failure to breed is a detriment as compared to the horse. 



* The Horseman & Spirit of the Times, Aug. 4, 1914. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
MARKET CLASSES OF MULES. 

The mule market is of more recent origin than the horse 
market, but has developed into a large business. Whereas 
horses are usually sold at public auction, mules are usually- 
sold at private sale, being sold singly, in pairs, or in any num- 
ber to suit the needs of the buyer. When large numbers are 
wanted of a uniform height and weight, they are most often 
sold at a fixed price per head and the salesman gives a guarantee 
as to age, soundness, and other requirements. When an order 
is placed for mules of different sizes or for different market 
classes, they will ordinarily be figured individually, or in pairs. 

Market requirements. — The market requirements for mules 
are similar to those for horses. They should be sound, of a 
desirable age and color, well fleshed, and sleek in coat; and 
should possess abundant quality and a strong conformation. 
They should also have good action. These requirements are 
discussed in detail below. 

Soundness. — Mules should be serviceably sound. Blem- 
ishes are objectionable, though not in the same degree as with 
horses. They should be sound in eyes and wind, and should 
be good workers. The most common and serious unsound- 
nesses are large spavins, puffs, sidebones, defective eyes, and 
unsound wind. 

Age. — The most desired age is from four to eight years; 
however, there are exceptions in some classes, as noted below. 

Condition. — The appearance is greatly improved if mules 
are marketed carrying flesh enough to round out their middles. 
Sleek, glossy coats of hair are often estimated to be worth ten 
dollars. The flesh should be smooth, not lumpy or roily. The 
value of flesh on mules is about equal to that on draft horses— 
which is twenty-five cents per pound with a good grade of horses. 

Quality. — Refinement of head, hair, bone, joints, and hoofs 
is an evidence of good bone and wearing qualities. 

Conformation. — All mules should have a large chest, long 
shoulder, deep barrel, straight short back with as much spring 
of rib as possible, a broad loin, and a long level croup. The 
underline should be comparatively straight, the rear flank well 

472 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



473 



let down, and the thighs and quarters heavily muscled. The 
legs should evidence both substance and quality, the feet should 
be large, wide at the heel, and sound, and the hoofs should be 
smooth. The form, muscling, and set of legs should be ap- 
proximately the same as in horses. The head of the mule is 
a good index of his disposition and temperament; it should be 
of good size, yet clean-cut as an evidence of quality. The fore- 
head should be broad and flat, and the nose slightly Roman, 




Fig. 158. High-Class Draft Mules. 

which indicates stamina and strength. If the head is as de- 
scribed, the animal is usually considered to be a more reliable 
and agreeable worker than one not possessing these character- 
istics. The ears should be long, thin, tapering, and carried 
erect; the neck should be long, with moderate crest, and should 
join the shoulder smoothly. The mane should be reached, and 
the tail clipped in the regular manner with not too short a bush. 

Color. — All mules of solid color, except white, are in good 
demand, though color is not an important factor. Dapple 



474 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



grays are popular in the draft class, but as a general rule, bays, 
browns, and chestnuts are most desirable, while flea-bitten grays 
are discriminated against. 

Action. — Action counts for very little in market mules. 
They should show vigor and energy in their movements and 
be straight-line movers. They should not be lame or crampy, 
nor defective in action because of badly set legs. 

The market classes of mules are determined by the use 
to which they are put, but in order for a class to exist there must 




Fig. 159. Mining or Pack Mule. 

be a demand for considerable numbers of a definite t3rpe. In 
the St. Louis market, which is the largest mule market in the 

world, there are six market classes which are as follows: 

Height Weight 

Classes Hands Pounds 

MINING MULES 12 to 16 600 to 1350 

COTTON MULES 13-2 to 15-2 750 to 1100 

SUGAR MULES 16 to 17 1150 to 1300 

FARM MULES 15-2 to 16 900 to 1250 

DRAFT MULES 16 to 17-2 1200 to 1600 

f Wheel mules 15-3 to 16-1 1150 to 1300 

ARMY MULES. . . Lead mules 15 to 15-3 1000 to 1150 

[Pack and riding mules 14-2 to 15-2 950 to 1200 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



475 



Mining mules.— These are purchased for use in mines, 
principally to haul cars of ore or coal to the hoisting shafts. 
They are rugged, deep bodied, short legged, compactly built, 
and have heavy bone and large feet. They stand from 12 to 
16 hands high, and weigh from 600 to 1350 pounds. Those 
used down in mines are termed "pit mules," and the height 
of these is limited by the depth of the vein worked. Ages from 
5 to 8 years are most preferred, but a well-developed four-year- 
old, or a well-preserved ten-year-old, is often accepted. Geld- 
ings are much preferred to mare mules for this trade. Bad 
wire marks on the feet are severely discriminated against, as 




Fig. 160. Cotton or Lead Mule. 

they are likely to become sore from contact with sulphur and 
other chemicals in the mine. The demand for miners is strong 
and constant throughout the year, and comes from all sections 
where mines are operated. 

Cotton mules.— Cotton mules are very similar to mining 
mules in size, but are lighter boned and not so compactly built. 
They should have small, neat heads, and possess much quality 
and finish. Their feet are smaller and bodies proportionately 
lighter. Cotton mules stand from 13-2 to 15-2 hands high, 
and weigh from 750 to 1100 pounds. They are most desired 
from 3 to 7 years old, but may find ready sale up to 12 years of 
age. Mare mules sell better than geldings in this class. The 
trade begins about the first of September and continues good 



476 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

throughout the fall and winter months, then gradually decreases 
until after the cotton crop is planted, or about April. From 
this time until the following fall, the demand is light. Cotton 
mules are used by cotton growers to plant, cultivate, and harvest 
the cotton crop, but a great many such mules are also taken to 
cities for use on delivery wagons and other purposes. 

Sugar mules. — These are mules especially adapted for use 
on the sugar farms of Georgia, Louisiana, and other southern 
states. Sugar mules are taller, larger, more breedy looking, 
better finished, and have heavier bone than cotton mules. The 
feet should be large in proportion to the bone. They stand 




Fig. 161. Sugar Mule. 

from 16 to X7 hands high, and weigh from 1150 to 1300 pounds. 
Mare mules from 3 to 6 years old are most desired for this trade. 
As sugar mules are larger and possess more quality and finish 
than cotton mules, they sell for a little more money. The trade 
begins in August, and usually ends in February. They are in 
greatest demand in September, October, and November. 

Farm mules. — Mules purchased for use on farms in the 
central states are known on the market as farm mules. They 
are less uniform in type than the other classes, as farmers like 
to buy animals that show promise of further development. 
Farm mules are usually from 15-2 to 16 hands high, and from 
3 to 6 years old, four-year-olds being preferred. They are often 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 477 

plain looking and thin in flesh, though possessing good con- 
stitution, bone and feet, and showing indications of a good out- 
come when well fed and cared for. Many of them are worked 
for a time, then fattened and returned to the market. When 
resold, they may be taken as miners, sugar mules, or cotton 
mules. The strongest demand for farm mules occurs during 
the late winter and spring months. 

Draft mules. — Draft mules are large, heavy-boned, heavy- 
set mules, with plenty of quality. They are purchased to do 
heavy teaming work. Many are used by contractors doing 
railroad grading, and consequently they are often spoken of^as 




Fig. 162. Farm or Wheel Mule. 

railroad mules. They are especially demanded for heavy team- 
ing work in cities in warm climates, where they are preferred 
to horses because they are said to be hardier, able to stand the 
hot sun better, and not subject to as many ills. Draft mules 
stand from 16 to 17-2 hands high, and weigh from 1200 to 1600 
pounds and upwards. They should combine weight and strength. 
They should be large, rugged, heavily boned, and strongly 
muscled. The feet should be large, the back short and strong, 
the middle deep and closely coupled, the croup fairly level, and 
the thighs and quarters massive. They are most desired from 
5 to 8 years old, and little preference is shown regarding sex. 
The demand is strong and quite constant the year round. 



478 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



Army mules. — The demand for mules in the army is very- 
limited and the class is not important except in time of war. 
In the recent World War, the American mule played a very 
important part, and large numbers were purchased at the var- 
ious markets. Three classes are required, these being wheel 
mules and lead mules used in four-in-hand teams on army wagons 
for transport work, and pack and riding mules. 

Wheel mules. — Government specifications call for mules 
that are "sound, well bred, and of a superior class; of a kind 
disposition, free from vicious habits, gentle, and well broken to 
harness, with free and springy action at the walk and trot; and 
otherwise to conform to the following description: A mare or 
gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condition, from 3 to 




Fig. 163. Small Pair of Wheel Mules to Army Wagon. 

S years old. Three-year-old mules will be purchased only when 
exceptionally fine individuals." Wheel mules stand 15-3 to 
16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1150 to 1300 pounds. 

Lead mules. — These are of the same general description as 
the wheelers, but are smaller animals. They should stand 15 
to 15-3 hands high, and weigh from 1000 to 1150 pounds. 

Pack and riding mules. — Pack and riding mules stand 
from 14-2 to 15-2 hands, and weigh from 950 to 1200 pounds. 
They must be of stocky build, with a stout neck, short, strong 
back, good coupling, large deep barrel, and good feet and legs, 
with ample bone. The pack mules must be particularly deep 
in the middle and strong backed, as they carry a long pack 
saddle which fits well down on the sides of the mule, and they 
carry from 300 to 350 pounds. Pack mules are used for trans- 



Types and Makket Classes of Live Stock 479 

port work in very rough or wooded country where wagons can- 
not be used. The demand for these mules is limited. 

Plugs. — These are worn out, cheap mules that have but 
little value. They are usually unsound in one or more respects, 
very plain and rough in form, and many are of advanced age. 

Export mules. — The export trade in mules has increased 
during recent years. Large shipments have been made to 
South Africa, Philippine Islands, and Cuba. The size and type 
of these mules varies, depending on the use to which they are 
put and the country to which they are sent. Some are used 
for army service, some for agricultural purposes, some for heavy 
teaming, and some in mines. Hence the term "export mule" 
is a trade name which is not restricted to any particular kind 
of mules. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 
UNSOUNDNESS IN THE HORSE 

Soundness is a very vital factor in determining the value 
of a horse, and a knowledge of unsoundness is very essential to 
success in breeding. Brief description of the most common un- 
soundnesses has been deferred until the close of the discussion of 
horses in order that the student may learn to fix his attention, 
first of all, on type. The matter of soundness, while important, 
is often overemphasized by beginners. Presented here at the 
close, such information should serve as an important supple- 
ment to preceding discussions of the types and market classes 
of horses and mules. 

If a horse is unsound, his unsoundness may be accounted 
for in one or more ways: (1) he may have had a natural weak- 
ness in conformation or structure which predisposed him to the 
unsoundness; (2) he may have been strong in conformation, 
but forced to do extreme labor which was beyond the power of 
the animal machine to endure; (3) the unsoundness may be the 
result of a bruise, blow, cut, or other injury; (4) unsoundness 
may result following a diseased condition of some part of the 
body, and (5j lack of proper care, as, for example, failure to keep 
the feet in proper balance so as to distribute the weight and 
wear equally over the various parts of the foot and leg, may bring 
on unsoundness. In the horse for work, it matters little which of 
the above explanations applies; he is unsound, and the horse mar- 
ket fixes his value according to the nature of the unsoundness, with- 
out regard to the reason why the horse has it. In the horse in- 
tended for breeding purposes only, unsoundness should not be con- 
sidered a serious detriment unless it is explained by the first of the 
possibilities listed above. For example, it is wiser to breed to a 
horse having a naturally strong hock which, because of accident 
or extreme work, has developed a bone spavin, than it is to breed 
to a sound horse having a weakly formed hock which is free 
from bone spavin only because it has never been put to the test 
of even moderate work. It is often difficult, however, to de- 
termine with accuracy the reason for an unsoundness, and in all 
such doubtful cases the unsoundness should be looked upon 
with suspicion and the horse rejected for breeding purposes. 

480 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 481 

Certain unsoundnesses are ordinarily referred to as "heredi- 
tary," on account of their marked tendency to reappear in suc- 
ceeding generations. More correctly, however, it is some weak- 
ness of conformation that is transmitted which predisposes the 
members of the family to one or more unsoundnesses. Con- 
siderable difference of opinion exists among well-informed per- 
sons as to the hereditary transmission of some unsoundnesses. 

A number of minor troubles which are not unsoundnesses 
are here given brief mention, because of the frequency with 
which they are met and to satisfy curiosity regarding them. 
Treatment is briefly mentioned in some cases for a similar reason. 
Many minor troubles are important because they blemish a 
horse. A blemish merely detracts from the appearance of an 
animal, whereas an unsoundness interferes with his working 
capacity. Many unsoundnesses are blemishes as well. A 
study of the ills to which the horse is heir shows that his eyes, 
"legs, and wind are the seats of unsoundness. 

Blindness. — ^Any defect of sight is a' serious defect in a 
horse, and eye trouble always furnishes grounds for rejecting 
horses for unsoundness. Inspecting a horse for blindness re- 
quires expert knowledge of the diseases of the eye, and, although 
the average horseman can in many cases discover defective 
eyes, no horse is safely passed as sound in eyes except by a well- 
qualified veterinarian. Severe weeping, partially closed eye- 
lids, sunken eyes, inability to bear strong light, a cloudy ap- 
pearance of the cornea, unnatural or dull color, failure of the 
iris to contract to a considerable degree when brought from 
darkness to light, too activa play of the ears, failure to blink 
when an object is passed close to the eye — these and many 
other conditions give evidence of defective vision (See also 
cataract and periodic ophthalmia.) 

Blood spavin. — Blood spavin is situated in front and to 
the inside of the hock, and is merely a varicose or dilated con- 
dition of the vein passing over that region. It occurs directly 
over the point where the bog spavin is found, and is some- 
times confused with the latter. It constitutes a blemish rather 
than an unsoundness. 

Bog spavin.— This is a round, smooth, well-defined swell- 
ing in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it 
disappears to reappear on the outside and just behind the hock. 
It is caused by a weakness in the synovial sacs of the joint, 
accompanied by a hyper-secretion of synovial fluid or joint oil. 



482 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

Bog spavins are more often blemishes, rather than unsound- 
nesses. They are classed as the latter only when they are well 
developed or cause lameness. Slight cases are described as 
merely "a little full in the hocks." Treatment consists of rest, 
blistering, cauterization, and the use of pressure pads and pecu- 
liar bandages. 

Bone spavin.— This is a bony growth of variable size in 
the hock, which may or may not make itself visible on the ex- 
terior. It most often occurs at the inner and lower border 
of the hock, but may arise on the upper part, or on the outside 
of the hock. In some cases, no outward signs of spavin are 
perceptible; these are called "occult" spavins. Care should 
be taken not to mistake a prominent development of the inner 
and lower border of the hock, natural in some animals, for a 




Fig. 164. Bog Spavin. 

A, Bog spavin; B, sound hock. 

spavin. Hocks that are narrow or tied in below are subject to 
bone spavin, as are also those of coarse structure. 

Bone spavins affect one or more of the six bones of the 
hock. The spavin usually represents an effort on the part of 
nature to repair the joint. Spavins are caused by sprains, by 
violent efforts in jumping, galloping, trotting, or pulling, by 
slipping or sliding, and other similar causes. This is classed 
as an hereditary unsoundness. It is one of the most serious 
unsoundnesses of horses; it causes lameness and stiffens the 
joint. As with sidebones and ringbones, the size of the spavin 
is not a safe index of its seriousness. An excellent test for 
spavin lameness consists in lifting the affected leg off the ground 
for one or two minutes, holding the foot high so as to flex all 
the joints. Then start the animal off in a trot, when the lame- 
ness will be greatly intensified if it is caused by spavin. Treat- 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 



483 



ment consists of complete rest for a month or more, blistering, 
the use of proper medicaments, firing, and special operations 
on the joint. Firing produces a small scar, and when this is 
present the spavin is called a "jack." 

Broken wind or heaves. — This condition is denoted by a 
characteristic hollow cough, short, and something like a grunt, 
which once heard is easily recognized a second time. Inspira- 
tion is performed normally, but expiration is abnormal, being 
double, or what is commonly called the "double lift." Tjie 
first portion of the expiration expels the air as normally, and 
the second apparently squeezes the remainder of the air from 
the lungs in a gradual manner, seemingly with more or less 
voluntary exertion. When such an animal is put to work, 
there is also a wheezing noise with the breathing. From a 
commercial standpoint, a broken-winded horse has practically 





Fig. 165. Bone Spavin. 

A, Bone spavin; B, sound hock. 

no value, yet he may continue to work fairly well. The cough 
is sometimes disguised by unprincipled persons through the 
administration of such substances as shot and grease; but this 
is only temporary. The abnormal breathing cannot be con- 
cealed. In some cases of broken wind, the air vesicles of the 
lungs have been f6und, after death, ruptured; the right side of 
the heart enlarged, and the walls of the stomach dilated, though 
this is not always true. A predisposition to this disease may 
be inherited. In doubtful cases of broken wind, give the animal 
all the water he will drink and then ride or drive him uphill. 
This will bring out the symptoms if the disease is present. 

There is great diversity of opinion as regards the exact 
cause of heaves. It is usually associated with disorder of di- 
gestion, or to an error in choice of feed. Feeding on clover 



484 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

hay or damaged hay or straw, too bulky food, and keeping 
the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable 
produce or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high 
to a low level are predisposed. 

Capped elbow. — This is commonly termed "shoe boil," 
and consists of a bruise at the point of the elbow, generally 
caused by the heel of the shoe when the horse is lying down, 
and sometimes from other causes. The continued irritation 
leads to the production of a tumor at the point of the elbow. 
The skin may be broken, and slight suppuration very often 
occurs. The cause must be removed, and the animal provided 
with a leather or rubber ring around the fetlock while in the 
stall. The remainder of the treatment is surgical. Capped 
elbow may cause severe lameness, but it is usually a blemish 
only. 

Capped hock. — This is quite common and may or may not 
constitute unsoundness. It is the result of a bruise, either 
continuous or intermittent, and may appear suddenly or grad- 
ually. Such bruises may be received in shipping by train or 
boat, or by the habit some animals have of kicking against 
the sides of the stall, or at fences, or even in harness. The 
skin, bursa, or the bone may be involved in capped hock. Usual- 
ly it is the skin, which becomes very much thickened over the 
point of the hock. It is in every case a blemish. -Treatment 
consists of hot and cold applications and blistering. 

Cataract. — When the lens of the eye becomes so cloudy 
or opaque as to present a white or grayish color, the eye is said 
to be affected with cataract, which is a practically incurable 
form of blindness. A blow over the eye and other causes bring 
it on. It is rather common, particularly in aged horses. 

Chronic cough. — ^A permanent cough accompanying broken 
wind, glanders, and other diseases constitutes an unsoundness. 

Cocked ankles or knuckling. — This is a partial dislocation 
of the fetlock joint, in which the position of the bones is changed, 
the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular. While it is 
not always an unsoundness, it nevertheless predisposes to stumb- 
ling and to fracture of the pastern. Young foals are frequently 
subject to this condition, and in the great majority of such cases 
the trouble disappears in a few weeks without treatment. Horses 
with erect pasterns often knuckle as they grow old, especially 
in the hind legs. All kinds of hard work, particularly in hilly 
districts, are exciting causes of this trouble. It is also caused 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 485 

by improper shoeing, in which the toe is made too long and the 
heel too low, thus producing inflammation and retraction of 
the tendons. Lastly, it is caused by disease of the suspensory 
ligament or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, 
and by disease of the fetlock joint. It is one of the worst faults 
a horse can possess, and it greatly affects the value and the price. 
Treatment varies depending on the cause of the trouble. Relief 
may be secured by so shoeing as to shorten the toe and elevate 
the heels, thus relieving the tendons. In extreme cases, the 
tendons may be operated on to secure relief. Firing and blister- 
ing effect a cure in some instances. 

Contracted feet. — Contraction of the feet is not a diseased 
condition in itself, but is a symptom of such and leads to trouble. 
Contraction is due to a removal of the full functions of the foot, 
such as is the case in lameness, removal of frog pressure, defective 
shoeing, etc. Contraction occurs more especially at the heels, 
and more frequently in the fore feet than in the hind ones. Veter- 
inarians look upon this condition as constituting unsoundness. 
Treatment is not of much avail, but going barefoot or wearing 
a special shoe to spread the heels will help to alleviate the con- 
dition. 

Corns.^A corn is a bruise to the fleshy sole, and is mani- 
fested by a reddish discoloration of the horny sole beneath 
the bruise. It usually occurs upon the inner quarter of the 
fore foot. A corn very often causes severe lameness, and is 
a cause of unsoundness. The treatment consists in paring, 
special shoeing, poulticing, keeping the part thoroughly clean, 
and a few weeks' rest. 

Cracked heels. — This condition is denoted by an inflamed 
state of the skin, which becomes broken, and, if severe, may 
cause lameness. They are frequent in the horse, especially 
following a frost, the moisture from the thaw favoring this. 
It is similar to chapped hands, and Assuring is favored by the 
movements in the hollow of the heels. Treatment consists of 
the application of a soothing liniment applied daily with tow 
and bandage. 

Curb. — This is an unnatural prominence of variable size, 
located on the posterior border of the hock, four or five inches 
below the point of the hock. It is easily detected by viewing 
the joint in profile. It is caused by a sprain of the tendon which 
passes over that part, or of the strong ligament located there. 
Hocks that are sickled, coarse, and thick in appearance, or that 



486 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

are too narrow from front to back at their base, most often 
develop curbs. Violent efforts in heavy pulling, high jumping, 
or slipping are often the direct cause of curb. Curbs do not 
often cause lameness, or, if they do, it is usually during the 
formative stage. Legally it is an unsoundness, although it is 
not much of a detriment, especially in horses for slow work. 
Curbs are much less serious than bone spavins, ringbones, side- 
bones, cocked ankles, and stringhalt. Treatment in the early 
stages consists of cold applications to relieve the acute inflamma- 
tion. When the first stage has passed, blistering, frictions with 
ointments, and firing are often used with good success. 

Fistula. — This is an ulcerous lesion found at the withers. 
Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or long- 
continued irritation by the harness or saddle. The pus burrows 
and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles. The horse 
becomes incapacitated for work for a considerable period. Most 





A I B 

Fig. 166. Curb. 

A, Sound hock; B, curb. 

cases are curable. The treatment is largely surgical; the animal 
should be placed in the care of a competent veterinarian as soon 
as the condition is discovered. After the fistula is healed, a 
scar usually remains in the region of the withers. A horse that 
has had fistula is liable to subsequent attacks of the same trouble. 
Founder or laminitis. — This is a simple inflammation of 
the fleshy laminae within the hoof. Being exceedingly vascu- 
lar, the laminse are subject to congestion, and, being enclosed 
within the hoof, there is very little room for the relief of the 
congestion. The animal suffers most agonizing pain. Col 
cussion is one of the most common causes. Another is over- 
feeding on grain, causing indigestion, irritation of the alimentary 
tract, and inflammation of the fleshy laminae through sympathy. 
Other causes are unusual excitement, bad shoeing, over-exertion, 
exhaustion, rapid changes of temperature, or any other agencies 
of an over-supply of blood . to the fleshy laminae, resulting in 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 487 

congestion and inflammation. But it is the after-effects which 
are of most interest to us here. The disease sometimes becomes 
chronic, and this seriously affects the secretion of the horn. The 
toe of the hoof turns up, the heels become longer than natural, 
while the hoof near the coronet is circled with ridges like those 
of a ram's horn. These ridges are wide apart at the heel, and 
close together in front, and are due to periods of interference 
with the growth of horn simultaneous with the inflammation 
of the fleshy laminae. Because of the high heel and turned-up 
toe, the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint. Usually, accom- 
panying these defects, the sole is found to be thin, convex, and 
weak, and will stand but little wear. Because of the convexity, 
the diseased tissues bear unusual weight, and such animals are 
generally incurable cripples. 

Grease. — This is not an unsoundness, but is such a trou- 
blesome and common complaint that brief mention is here 
given. It is a skin disease appearing nearly always in the hind 
cannons. Draft horses are more subject to it than light horses. 
Some individuals are predisposed to it — those with coarse skin 
and coarse feather. Other horses have it as a form of parasitic 
mange, denoted by a greasy condition of the skin, congestion 
of the skin, erect hair, and offensive odor due to discharge from 
the sores. There is a constant itching and the horse rubs the 
part, producing thickening and wrinkling of the skin. Treat- 
ment varies. Half an ounce of Fowler's solution of arsenic 
night and morning in the feed, burning with hot iron, applying 
hot linseed poultices, dressing with lead lotion, giving a mild 
physic, decreasing amount of feed allowance — all these furnish 
good methods of treatment. 

Hip down. — This is a fracture of the point of the hip, often 
caused by the animal striking the part against the door post 
of the stable. It causes a flatness and sometimes the broken 
piece of bone may be felt. It is best detected by standing 
squarely behind the animal and viewing it across the hips. It 
constitutes a blemish. 

Navicular disease. — ^Navicular disease is a chronic inflam- 
mation involving the navicular bone, the navicular bursa, and 
the flexor tendon of the foot. It is brought on by repeated 
bruising. Light horses are affected much oftener than heavy 
horses. The hind feet are seldom affected. It is practically 
never found in mules. One-third of the weight falling on the 
leg is sustained by the little bow-shaped navicular bone, and 



488 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

the bone in turn is supported by tlie flexor tendon of the foot. 
(See Fig. 115.) Such defects as an insufficient plantar cushion, 
a small frog, and contracted feet predispose the horse to navicu- 
lar disease. In this way the disease may be hereditary, as these 
predisposing causes may be transmitted to offspring. High 
knee action, fast work, and hard pavements also endanger a 
horse from this disease. Dry stables, heavy pulling, and bad 
shoeing also tend toward the development of this trouble. In 
the early stages of navicular disease, the animal at rest points 
the affected foot forward and rests it on the toe, with the fetlock 
and knee flexed. In the lameness which develops, the affected 
leg takes a short stride, and the toe strikes the ground first. 
The disease is progressive and inculpable, rendering the animal 
practically valueless, but not entirely useless on soft ground. 
To relieve the pain, neurotomy may be performed, an operation 
in which the sense of feeling is destroyed in the foot by cutting 
out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. Navicular disease is one 
of the most serious unsoundnesses. 

Periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness — This is a disease 
affecting the eyes of horses, probably caused by a germ. It is 
quite commonly called moonblindness, because it was thought 
at one time that the moon had some influence on the cause of 
the disease. There is undoubtedly an hereditary predisposition 
to the disease, but there are few cases to indicate that the disease 
itself is transmitted from parent to offspring, but rather the foal 
is born with a weakness of the eyes, transmitted by the stallion 
or dam. Other predisposing factors are low, swampy pastures, 
poorly ventilated or insufficiently lighted stables, over-feeding, 
etc. 

The disease comes on with an inflammation usually of one 
eye. The transparent portion of the eyeball becomes bluish 
or white in color, most noticeable in the lower part. The eye 
is kept half closed on account of pain produced by light. Often 
this is associated by a swelling of the eyelids and reddening of 
the membrane lining them, with a discharge of tears over the 
face. There is no indication of an injury or more severe in- 
flammation at one point than at another. In one to two weeks 
these symptoms disappear and the eye may be practically nor- 
mal to all general appearances for a period of usually one to 
three months, when another attack occurs more severe than 
the first. After a few attacks have come and gone, the eye has 
a bluish appearance, looks cloudy instead of clear, the eyeball is 



Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 489 

shrunken, retracted in the orbit, and the lens develops a cataract. 
After having destroyed one eye, the disease frequently affects 
the other, and the history of the first is repeated. 

Poll evil.— Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll of the head, 
and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location. 
It is caused by blows, bruises, and chafing by the halter or bridle. 

Ringbone. — This is a bony growth at the coronet or on the 
pastern, in either the front or hind legs. It is called "ring- 
bone" because it often grows around the coronet so as to form 
a ring, although in a large number of cases the growth takes 
the form of a lump on the pastern, rather than that of a ring 
at the hoof-head. This disease may result from severe work 
in early life, from bruises, blows, or sprains, or from improper 
shoeing. Ringbone often follows an abscess of the coronet, or 
a deep-punctured wound. It is also classed as an hereditary 
unsoundness, horses with short, upright pasterns being pre- 






A B C 

Fig. 167. Ringbone and Coclied Anltle. 

A, Sound; B, ringbone; C, cocked ankle. 

disposed. Ringbones often cause lameness which may disap- 
pear with exercise, returning again when the animal is cooled. 
They may or may not stiffen the joint. The size of the ring- 
bone is not so important as its position. If it is located so as 
to interfere with the movement of the tendons behind or in 
front of the foot, it is a very serious trouble. Prevention of 
ringbones consists in keeping foals well nourished, and keeping 
the hoofs in balance. Curative measures consist of so shoe- 
ing as to straighten the axis of the foot and pastern as viewed 
from the side; blistering, followed by a few weeks of rest; and 
point firing in two or three lines over the ringbone. When 
these measures do not relieve lameness, the only recourse is 
nerving. 

Roaring or thick wind. — Horses that make a loud, unnat- 
ural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be 
roarers, excepting those which manifest this trouble because 



490 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

of a severe sore throat. Any obstruction of the free passage 
of air in some part of the respiratory tract may cause roaring; 
occasional causes are nasal polypi, thickening of the membrane, 
pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of 
the nostril, etc. However, chronic roaring is caused by paralysis 
of the muscles of the larynx, thus permitting the cartilage and 
vocal cord to lean into the tube of the larynx. The noise is 
made during inspiration, and in far-advanced cases may be 
produced also during expiration. A horse is tested for roaring 
by putting him to severe exertion, as the sound is usually made 
only when at work. Roaring is a serious unsoundness because 
it incapacitates an animal for severe work, and it is a serious 
blemish because the noise is unpleasant. It is classed as an 
hereditary disease. Treatment varies depending on the exact 
cause, and includes a course of iodide of potassium in the early 
stages of the disease, or, in advanced cases, operating on the 
larynx. 

Grunting.— When a pass is made at a horse with a stick, 
or he is otherwise startled, and he grunts, he should be further 
tested for roaring. It is a common thing for a roarer to grunt, 
although grunters are not always roarers. Such animals should 
be given a severe test of wind. Pleurisy and rheumatism will 
cause grunting, which ceases when the animal recovers from the 
disease. 

Whistling. — This is only a variation of the sound emitted 
by a roarer. It may be temporary, due to a severe sore throat. 

Sand crack. — Sand crack is a splitting of the wall of the 
hoof, beginning at the coronet, and commonly at the inner or 
outer quarter in the fore feet or at the toe in hind ones. It is due 
to imperfection in the growth of horn. It may cause lameness 
through sensitive parts being nipped by the crack. It con- 
stitutes unsoundness. The treatment is rest and cutting a 
notch transversely below the crack. If there is lameness the 
crack may be clasped. The shoe may be seated out below the 
crack, relieving pressure. 

Sidebones. — Sidebones are formed by the ossification of 
the lateral cartilages of the foot, so that they become hard 
and unyielding, instead of soft and elastic. (See Fig. 115.) This 
disease is most common in heavy horses. They are found more 
often in the front feet than in the hind ones, and the outer carti- 
lage is more often affected than the inner one. In the hind feet 
they are of little importance, since they cause no lameness. 



Types and Maeket Classes of Live Stock 491 

In the front feet they may or may not cause lameness, usually 
the latter; however, they always lessen the natural expansion 
of the heels and often result in shortening of the stride. When 
lameness is present, the horse comes out of the stable stiff and 
sore, but with exercise the gait shows improvement. Sidebones 
are caused by sprains, bruises, blows, and other injuries; and by 
high-heeled shoes, high calks, and short, upright pasterns. The 
size and prominence of a sidebone is not an index to the damage 
it may produce. Treatment is not of much account. It con- 
sists in using cold-water bandages, then blistering or firing. 
Neurotomy (nerving) is often practiced to relieve lameness. 
This is classed as an hereditary unsoundness. It is a serious 
form of unsoundness, but is not so serious as bone spavin, ring- 
bone, roaring, or blindness. 

Splint. — A splint is a variable-sized bony enlargement on 
the cannon bone, usually on the inside of the upper two-thirds 
of the front cannons. The button-like enlargements at the 
lower end of the splint bones should not be mistaken for splints. 
Splints occasionally cause lameness; if so, they constitute an 
unsoundness. They are more detrimental in horses used for 
fast work than in heavy horses used for slow work. In the great 
majority of cases, splints are only minor blemishes. Many 
horses have them. Splints often appear in young horses and 
may be absorbed shortly afterwards without treatment. The 
chief cause of splint is concussion. Other causes are sprains 
and injuries or blows on the cannon bone. No treatment should 
be given, as they but rarely cause trouble. Blistering and firing 
are sometimes practiced. 

Sprung knees or buck knees. — This defective conformation 
may be congenital or the result of heavy labor at too early an 
age, there being retraction of the flexor tendons of the parts 
below the knee. While not an unsoundness, it detracts from 
the usefulness and value, especially in saddle horses. Horses 
with badly sprung knees may fall even when standing at rest 
and unmolested. (See D in Fig. 120.) 

Stringhalt. — This disease comes under the general head- 
ing, chorea, or St. Vitus dance. It is manifested by a sudden, 
involuntary jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal 
is walking or trotting. It may be very slight in some horses, 
but increases with age. In some the affected leg is caught up 
very violently and high, and then lowered equally sudden and 
forcible. It is more often associated with a nervous disposition 



492 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 

than with a sluggish one. It is an incurable disease and very 
considerably lessens the price. It is best detected by causing 
the animal to back, or turning him around in his tracks first one 
way and then the other. 

Swollen legs. — A swollen leg usually indicates disease, the 
causes being many. It is also not uncommon in old horses, 
or those having a sluggish circulation. It is not an unsound- 
ness, but detracts from the appearance and is highly undesir- 
able. Treatment consists in giving laxatives, saltpeter, and 
moderate exercise. 

Thoroughpin. — This is similar to bog spavin; it is a swell- 
ing occurring at the back and on top of the hock in that part 
known as the "hollows." It is due to weakness of the capsular 
ligament and to hyper-secretion of synovial fluid. It is round 
and smooth, and most apparent when viewed from behind. 
The swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the 
hamstring. When pressed on one side, further distention oc- 
curs on the opposite side. It seldom causes lameness. Treat- 
ment is the same as for bog spavin. Thoroughpin is not a 
serious ailment, being usually only an eyesore, although many 
horsemen consider it an unsoundness. 

Thrush. — This is a disease of the cleft of the frog which 
may cause lameness. It is usually the result of negligence, the 
result of uncleanliness. The cleft of the frog becomes sup- 
purating and moist, and there is a very rank odor. Treatment 
consists in washing, disinfecting, drying, dusting with a little 
calomel, and packing. This must be repeated daily until the 
part becomes normal. 

Windgall or road puff. — Joints and tendons are furnished 
with sacs containing a lubricating fluid called synovia. When 
these sacs at the fetlocks become distended by reason of an 
excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They 
form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut or walnut. 
They are sometimes found in young horses, but are most common 
in horses used for hard labor, especially on pavements. They 
may be accompanied by lameness, but if not, they are classed 
merely as blemishes. As a rule, no treatment is necessary in 
young horses. Older animals may be treated by resting, cold- 
water douches and bandages, and blistering. 



INDEX. 



Action, effects of conformation on, 
366-9. 
slope of pastern on, 369. 
essejitials of, 368. 

(For action of various types 
see chapters on draft, carriage, 
road, and saddle horses.) 
Age, in selecting feeder steers, 97-100. 
from teeth, cattle, 39. 

horses, 370-2. 
sheep, 202. 
to breed ewes, 240. 
heifers, 137. 
mares, 464. 
sows, 344. 
castrate calves, 26. 
colts, 346. 
lambs, 193. 
pigs, 281. 
dock lambs, 193. 
Alveoli of udder, 157-8. 
American horses, origin of, 378-81. 
Jack, 468. 
Merino, 245-53. 
Saddle Horse, origin of, 379-80. 

type of, 419-22. 
-type hog, description of, 282-9. 
Anatomy of horse, 348-60. 
Arabian horse, origin of, 374-5. 
Army mules, 478-9. 
Artillery horses, 446-8. 
Ass, 468. 

Auction rules, 438-9. 
Australian plan of handling wool, 

277-8. 
Automobile, effect on horse industry, 
382. 

Baby beef, 87-91. 

advantages and profits, 126. 

on the market, 110. 
Bacon hog carcass, 306-8. 
hogs, English, 325-6. 
U. S., 326. 

-producing countries, 290. 

production, feeds used in, 290-1. 

-type hog, description of, 290-6. 
Barb horse, origin of, 375. 
Barrow, definition of, 281. 
Base of support of horse, 361-2. 
Bate, John J., early beef exports 

by, 82. 
Beef, ageing or ripening, 49. 

block or side, 49. 



Beef, Continued. 

breeding cattle, weight for age, 
131. 

cow, type desired in, 133-7. 
breeds, 25. 

internal fat of, 68. 
bull, importance of a good, 128-30 

number of cows bred to a, 
133. 

type desired in, 128-33. 
carcass, 40-56. 

classes and grades of, 54-5. 

cutters and canners, 49. 

differences due to sex, 54. 

good and inferior compared, 
48. 

grading, 53-4. 

how produced, 46-7. 

shape of, 50. 

thickness of fat on, 50-2. 
flesh in, 50. 

variations in, 44-5. 

weights of, 49-50. 
cattle breeding for market, 125- 
37. 

prices, high and low months, 
124. 

shrinkage in transit, 81. 
consumption in various coun-' 

tries, 297-8. 
corned, introduction of, 80. 
cow, type desired in, 133-7. 
cuts, prices of, 44. 

weights of, 44. 
cutting, 43. 
demands of butcher, 48-9. 

consumer, 48-9. 
exports of, 23. 

pioneer, 82. 
grain of, 53. 

heifers, age to breed, 137. 
making, value of type in, 63-70. 
marbling, 50-2. 
pounds produced per head of 

stock cows, 125. 
production, baby, advantages 
of, 126. 

in cornbelt, outlook, 126. 

factors for success in, 137. 
see Calves, Carcass, Cattle, and 

Feeders, 
sire, price to pay for, 129. 

type desired in, 131-3. 



493 



494 



Index 



Beef, Continued. 

steer vs. dairy steer, 63-70. 

vs. beef heifer, 91-3. 
type, definition of, 25. 

description of, 27-39. 
wholesale cuts of, 42-4. 
Blindness, 481. 
Block beef, 49. 
Blood meal, source of, 212. 
spavin, 481. 

supply to udder, 159-60. 
Boar, definition of, 281. 

number of sows bred to, 344. 
type desired in. 339-44. 
Boars, on the market, 328. 
Bog spavin, 481-2. 
Bone spavin, 482-3. 
Bones, flintiness of, in beef carcass, 53. 
of cattle, changes due to age, 46-7 
size of, in beef carcass, 53. 
Break-joint of lambs, 208-9. 
Breed, a factor in selecting feeder 
steers, 103-4. 
of horses, selecting a, 463. 
type, definition of, 25. 
Breeding bucks, on market, 232. 
ewes, on market, 230-2. 
for milk production, 172-9. 
the market, 
cattle, 125-37. 
hogs, 332-44. 
horses, 457-67. 
sheep, 235-44. 
sheep class, 230-2. 
Breeds of cattle, 25. 

beef, internal fat of, 68. 
dairy cows, differences in milk 

of, 160-1. 
horses, 383. 

origin of, 374-83. 
jacks, 468. 
sheep, 192. 

classification of wool of, 267. 
swine, 281. 
Broken wind, 483-4. 
Brood mares, selection of, 463-4. 

working, 459. 
Buck, definition of, 193. 
Buck knees, 491. 
Bucks and stags, 226. 

breeding, on the market, 232. 
Bull, definition of, 26. 
Bulls and stags, on the market, 113. 

feeder, 117. 
Bull's Head Stock Yards, Chicago, 76. 
Butcher cattle, 112-3. 

hogs, 322-3. 
By-products from slaughtering — 
cattle, 57-62. 
hogs, 312, 317-8. 
sheep, 212-3. 
Cab horses, 451. 
Calf, definition of, 26. 



Calves, charges for selling at Chicago, 
83. 
manner of dressing, 42. 
number slaughtered in U. S., 72. 
value, and weight, at 
Chicago, 71. 
prices of, at Chicago, 122-4. 
see Cattle and Veal calves, 
slaughter at markets, locally, 
and on farms, 72. 
of, in percentage stock of 
cows, 125. 
yearlings, and older cattle, for 
feeding, 97-100. 
Canner carcasses, 49. 
cattle, 114-5. 
Canter described, 421. 
Capped elbow, 484. 
hock, 484. 
Carbonization of wools, 271. 
Carcass, bacon hog, 306-8. 
beef, discussion of, 40-56. 
cutter and canner, 49. 
differences due to sex, 54. 
for side or block use, 49. 
good and inferior compared, 

48. 
grading, 53-4. 
heifer vs. steer, 51. 
how produced, 46-7. 
shape of, 50. 

thickness of fat on, 50-2. 
of flesh in, 50. 
variations in, 44-5. 
classes and grades, beef and veal, 
54-5. 
hog, 308-10. 
sheep and lamb, 207. 
goat, 209-10. 

hog, discussion of, 297-310. 
sheep or lamb — 

discussion of, 203-10. 
qualifications of a good, 207-9. 
weights, beef, 49-50. 
hog, 308. 
lamb, 208. 
sheep, 208. 
veal, 55. 
Carloads, number of animals per car, 

78-9. 
Carpet wool, 259-60. 
Carriage, evolution of, 376-8. 
horse class, 449-51. 

in America, 381. 

origin and development of, 

376-8. 
type, description of, 400-8. 
Casings, for sausage, 212. 
Castration, best age for calves, 26. 
colts, 346. 
lambs, 193. 
pigs, 281. 
Cataract, 484. 



Index 



495 



Cattle breeding in West, status in 
various states, 129-30. 
business today, 83-4. 
by-products from slaughtering, 

57-62. 
charges for selling at Chicago, 83. 
dressing percentage of, 41-2. 
early, 85-7. 
fashions in, 85-94. 
feeding, advantages of, 105. 
margin in, 96-7. 
source of profit in, 96. 
hides, average weight and value 

of, 57. 
hoofs, value of, 58. 
horns, value of, 58. 
how classified and graded on 

market, 119-22. 
market receipts, 71-2. 
marketing, by seasons, 72. 
markets, American, 71-84. 

development of large, 74-5. 
early, 73. 
number slaughtered in U. S., 72. 
to each inhabitant, 125. 
value and distribution in 

U. S., 125-6. 
value and weight at Chicago, 
71. 
offal, 41. 
prices at Chicago, 122-4. 

highest and lowest months 
on market, 124. 
see Calves. 

shipments by rail, early, 75. 
methods of, early, 74-5. 
shrinkage of, in transit, 81. 
slaughter at Chicago, 72, 80. 

markets, locally, and 
on farms, 72. 
of, in percentage stock 
of cows, 125. , 

slaughtering, 40-1. 
special advantage of, on farm, 26. 
terms, definition of, 26. 
weights of early, 85-7. 
Caul of sheep, 204-5. 
Cavalry horses, 453-4. 
Chicago, Bull's Head Stock Yards, 76. 
cattle market, 71. 

slaughter at, 72, 80. ' 
sources of receipts, 79. 
charges for buying hogs, 328. 
corn, 322. 
hay, 83. 
public inspection of hogs, 

322. 
selling cattle and calves, 83. 
hogs, 322. 

sheep and goats, 215. 
yardage, cattle, 83. 
hogs, 322. 
sheep and goats, 215. 



Chicago, Continued. 

development of meat packing 

at, 315. 
early cattle trade, 75-6. 
hog market, 319-20. 

growth of, 319-20. 
-packing firms, 317. 
hogs slaughtered at, 317. 
• packing plants, owners of, 80. 
prices for cattle and calves, 122-4. 
hogs, 330. 
horses, 455-6. 
sheep and lambs, 233-4. 
see Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 
sheep market, 214-5. 

slaughtered at, 214-5. 
zone system of marketing at, 
72—3 
Chitterlings, 312. 
Chunk horses, 443-4. 
Cincinnati, early hog packing at, 

314. 
Circulation of blood to udder, 159-60. 
Class, market, definition of, 106. 
Classes and grades of carcasses — 
beef, 54-5. 
hog, 308-10. 
mutton and lamb, 207. 
Classes and grades of cattle, 106-24. 
hogs, 322-31. 
horses, 438-56. 
mules, 472-9. 
sheep, 215-34. 
wool, 262-7. 
Classes, average prices at Chicago — 
cattle, 122-4. 
hogs, 330. 
horses, 455-6. 
sheep, 233-4. 
Classes of Merinos, 251-3. 
Classification of fine-wool sheep, 
251-3. 

see Market classes, 
types and breeds of 

horses, 383. 
types and breeds of 

sheep, 192. 
wools, 259-67. 
Clothing and combing wools, 258-9, 

262-7. 
Coach horses, 450. 
Cob horses, 450. 
Cocked ankles, 484-5. 
Colostrum, 162. 
Colt, definition of, 346. 
Combing and clothing wools, 258-9, 

262-7. 
Commission charges, Chicago — 
buying hogs, 328. 
selling cattle, 83. 
hogs, 322. 

sheep and goats, 215. 
Conestoga horses, 379. ^ 



496 



Index 



Contracted feet, 485. 

Corn and hogs closely related, 334-5. 

beef, 80. 

charges for, at Chicago market, 
322. 
Corns, 485. 
Cotton mules, 475-6. 
Cough, chronic, 484. 
Cow, definition of, 261. 
Cows, fat, on the market, 113. 

see Beef cows and Dairy cows. 

stock and feeding, 117. 
Cracked heels, 485. 
Crippled hogs, 329. 
Cross-bred, definition of, 127. 
Cumberland side, 307-8. 
Curb, 485-6. 

Cuts, see Wholesale cuts. 
Cutter carcasses, 49. 
Cutters and canners, 114-5. 
Cutting beef, 43. 

Dairy breeds, 25. 

differences in milk of, 160-1. 
bull, importance of a good, 172-6. 
selection of a, 176-8. 
type desired in, 151-4. 
cattle breeding, 172-9. 
cow, type desired in, 138-51. 
cows, method of judging, 138-40. 
notable tests of, 164-6. 
number, value, and distri- 
bution in U. S., 172. 
testing, value of, 175. 
variations in usefulness of, 

164-71. 
world's record-holding, 166- 
7. 
farming, advantages of, 178-9. 
steers, for beef, 63-70. 

why lacking thick flesh, 68-9 
temperament, 150. 
type, definition of, 25. 

description of, 138-54. 
Dead animals, numbers removed 

from cars at Chicago, 330. 
Dead hogs, 329-30. 

sheep, 233. 
Delivery wagon horses, 446. 
Depilatory, 269. 
Digestive system of horse, 350. 
Docking lanbs, best age for, 193. 
Draft horse in America, 380-1. 
mare, selection of, 463-4. 
mules, 477. 

stallion, selection of, 465. 
type, advantages of, to farmer, 
461. 
description of, 384-99. 
origin of, 376. 
weight for age, 399. 
Dressing calves, 42. 
cattle, 40-1. 



Dressing, Continued. 
hogs, 297-8. 
percentage, average of 
calves, 42. 
cattle, 42. 
hogs, 299-300. 
sheep and lambs, 205. 
of cattle, 41-2. 
hogs, 299-300. 
sheep, 205. 
see Slaughter, 
sheep and lambs, 204-5. 
Dual-purpose breeds, 25. 

cattle, profits from, 184-7. 

utility of, 180-2. 
type, definition of, 25. 

description of, 182-4. 
Dyeing woolen goods, 259. 

Eastern chunks, 443-4. 

Eastman, Timothy C, early beef 

exports by, 82. 
Eckles, C. H., investigation of varia- 
tion in milk production, 167- 
70. 
English bacon hogs, 325-6. 
Escutcheon of dairy cattle, 149-50. 
Ewe, definition of, 193. 

mutton breeding, type desired 
in, 240-3. 
Ewes, age to breed, 240. 
fat, 226. 
feeder, 230. 

number to breed to one ram, 240. 
Export mules, 479. 
Exports of beef, 23. 

pioneer, 82. 
of pork products, 318-9. 
wools, 272-3. 
Express horses, 445-6. 

Farm chunks, 444. 
mules, 476-7. 
Farming, live-stock, advantages of; 21. 

vs. grain, 19. 
Fashions in market cattle, 85-94. 
Fat, color of, in beef, 52-3. 
cows on the market, 113. 
heifers on the market, 109, 113. 
internal, in steers of different 

breeds, 68. 
percentage in cuts of beef, 48. 
steer class, 107-10. 
storage in bodies of cattle, 47. 
thickness of, in beef carcass, 50-2. 
Fatness, effect of feed on, in steers, 

37-8. 
Federal inspection for disease, 79. 
Feed, charges for, at Chicago, 83. 
effect on composition of milk, 

170-1. 
required for gains in hogs, 339-40. 
steers, 52. 



Index 



497 



Feeder bulls, 117. 

cattle, decline in production, 126. 
sale of, by seasons, 95. 
sub-classes and grades, 115- 

7. 
where bought, 95, 
ewes, 230. 
horses, 454. 
pigs, 328. 

sheep and lambs, 226-30. 
sale by seasons, 226. 
where bought, 226-7. 
steers, selection of, 95-105. 
wethers, 230. 
Feeding cattle, advantages of, 105. 
Feeds, fertilizing value of, 20. 
Feet, contracted, 485. 
Fertility, soil, maintenance of, 20. 
Fertilizer, source of, 212. 
Fill of cattle on market, 42. 
Filly, definition of, 346. 
Fine-wool sheep, breeds of, 192. 
type, description of, 245-54. 
Fire horses, 448-9. 
Fistula, 486. 

Five-gaited saddle horse, 419-22. 
Fleece of fine-wool sheep, 250. 

mutton sheep, 198-202. 
see Wool, 
tying, 275-6. 
Fleeces, buck, 276. 

cotted or matted, 276. 
grading, 262. 
Flesh, effect of feed on, in hogs, 290-1. 
steers, 36-8. 
thickness of, in beef carcass, 50. 
why dairy steer lacks, 68-9. 
Fleshing, natural, in feeder steers, 102. 
Foal, definition of, 346. 
Foods, analyses and fuel values of, 337. 
Foot of horse, anatomy of, 355-9. 
characteristics of a healthy, 359- 
60. 
Fore leg of horse, anatomy of, 351-2. 
attachment of, 361-2. 
Founder, 486-7. 
Four-tooth, definition of, 193. 
Fox trot described, 422. 
Free-martin, definition of, 26. 

Gains by hogs of different weights, 
339-40. 

steers for different periods, 52. 
Gaits of horse described, 420-2. 
trotting and pacing, 415-6. 
Gammon, 296. 
Gelding, definition of, 346. 
General-purpose horse, 380. 
Gestation period of cattle, 137. 
horses, 464. 
sheep, 240. 
swine, 344. 
Gilt, definition of, 281. 



Glue, 58, 212, 312. 
Goat carcasses, 209-10. 
skins, value of, 212. 
Goats and kids — 

charges for selling at Chicago, 

215. 
number slaughtered in U. S., 214. 
on the market, 233. 
slaughter at markets, locally, and 
on farms, 214. 
Governments, 329. 
Grade animal, definition of, 128. 

dairy cows compared with scrub 

dams, 173-5. 
market, definition of, 107. 
Grading carcasses, beef, 53-4. 
hog, 308-10. 
mutton and lamb, 

207. 
see Market classes 
Grease, 487. 

Great Horse, origin of, 375-6. 
Grunting, 490. 

Guenon, Francois, escutcheon theory 
of, 149. 

Hams, long-cut, 307-8. 

Hand, definition of, 372. 

Hay, charges for, at Chicago market, 

83 
Heaves, 483-4. 
Heavy-harness type — 
description of, 400-8. 
see Carriage horse. 
Heifer beef, compared with steer 
beef, 91-3. 
carcasses, preferred in England, 

51. 
definition of, 26. 
fat, on the market, 109, 113. 
Height of horses, determining, 372-3. 
Hides, cattle, average weight and 
value of, 57. 
see Skins. 
High grade animal, definition of, 128. 
Hind leg of horse, anatomy of, 352-5. 
attachment of, 361. 
Hinny, 468. 
Hip down, 487. 
Hock, anatomy of, 352-4. 
Hocks, bent or sickle, 369-70. 
Hog by-products, 312, 317-8. 

carcass, classes and grades of, 
308-10. 
discussion of, 297-310. 
U.S. Retained, 311. 
wholesale cuts of, 301-3. 
crop, peculiarities of, 320-1. 
fattening ability of, 305. 
marketing, numbers and prices 

by seasons, 321. 
markets and pork packing, 314- 
21. 



498 



Index 



Hog markets, Continued. 

present leading, and re- 
ceipts, 319. 
-packing centers, leading present, 
316. 
firms at Chicago., 317 
past and present, 314-21. 
prices at Chicago, 330. 
-producing states, 334. 
product importing countries, 318- 
9. 
exports of, 318-9. 
high fuel value of, 336-7. 
-raising countries, leading, 333. 
see Pigs, Pork, and Swine. 
slaughter, compared with cattle 
and sheep, 297-8. 
at markets, locally, 
and on farms, 319. 
terms, definition of, 281. 
yardage charges at Chicago, 322. 
Hogs and corn closely related, 334-5. 
boar class of, 328. 
breeding for the market, 332-44. 
butcher, 322-3. 

charges for buying at Chicago, 
328. 
selling at Chicago, 322. 
cripples, 329. 
dead, 329-30. 

dressing percentage of, 299-800. 
English bacon, 325-6. 
feed for 100 lbs. gain, 389-40. 
feeder pig class, 328. 
governments, 329. 
heavy and light, demand and 

prices for, 331. 
increase in numbers of, 333. 
light, 325-7. 
light light, 327. 

mixed, 326-7. 
market classes and grades of, 

322-31. 
number, value, and distribution 

in U.S., 334. 
numbers packed in various years, 

and cost, 316. 
offal of, 299-300. 
packing class of, 323-4. 
pig class of, 327. 
■prime heavy, 322. 
public inspection of, at Chicago, 

charge for, 322. 
roasting pig class, 329. 
rough class, 327. 
seasonal marketing of, 331. 
see Hog, Pig, Pork, and Swine, 
selection for breeding purposes, 

389-44. 
sell largely by weight, 331. 
size in market, 387-9. 
slaughter in U. S., in per cent, 
total stock, 387. 



Hogs, Continued. 

slaughtering and dressing, 298-9. 
stag class, 327-8. 
U. S. bacon, 326. 
weights of, in early times, 337-9. 
marketed at Chicago 
by months, 320-1. 
Hoof, and how it grows, 357-9. 

mechanism, 365. 
Hoofs, cattle, value of, 58. 
Horns, cattle, value of, 58. 
Horse, age of, from teeth, 370-2. 
anatomy of, 348-60. 
and mule compared, 469-71. 
base of support of, 361-2. 
breeding, 457-67. 
conformation concerned in ac- 
tion, 366-9. 
digestive system of, 350. 
effects of mechanical inventions 

on, 381-2. 
foot of, anatomy of, 355-9. 
fore leg, anatomy of, 351-2. 
height of, determination of, 372-3. 
hind leg, anatomy of, 352-5. 
hock, anatomy of, 352-4. 
important facts concerning the, 

361-73. 
in America, 378-81. 

motion, 362-4. 
integumentary system of, 350. 
market auction rules, 438-9. 

requirements, 439-41. 
markets, receipts in 1918, 438. 
muscular system of, 349-50. 
nervous system of, 350. 
prices at Chicago, 455-6. 
respiratory system of, 350. 
skeleton of, 348. 

compared with man, 854-5. 
terms, definition of, 346-7. 
utility of, 345. 
where wear comes in, 364-5. 
Horses, number, value, and dis- 
tribution in U. S., 466-7. 
Hot-house lambs, 232. 
Hunter horse, description of, 428-33. 
origin of, 376. 
production of, 438. 

Imports of wools, 272-3. 
Inspection, federal, for disease, 79, 

311-2. 
Inspection of hogs at Chicago, charge 

for, 322. 
Integumentary system of horse, 350. 
Interfering, 869. 

Jack, best type of, 468. 
Jacks, breeds of, 468. 
Jennet, the, 468. 

Judging dairy cows, two methods of, 
138-40. 



Index 



499 



Kemp, 201, 274. 
Knuckling, 484-5. 

Lamb, definition of, 193. 
recent demand for, 203. 
see Mutton and Sheep. 
Lambs, fat, 218-23, 
feeder, 227-9. 
hot-house, 232. 
spring, 219-20. 
throw-out, 233. 
Laminitis, 486-7. 
Lard, grades of, 310-1. 
hog carcass, 301-6. 
hogs, feeds used with, 283. 
-type hog, description of, 282-9. 
reasons for developing in 
U. S. 336-7. 
yield from hogs of different 
weights, 304. 
Lateral cartilages, 356-7. 
Lead mules, 478. 
Lean meat, color of, in beef, 52. 
percentage in beef cuts, 48. 
Legs of horse, anatomy of, 351-5. 
attachment to body, 361-2. 
defects in conformation, 366-70. 
swollen, 492. 
Light-harness type, description of, 
409-17. 
see Roadster. 
Light hog class, 325-7. 

horses, require skill in breeding, 

461-3. 
light hogs, 327. 
mixed hogs, 326-7. 
Live-stock farming, advantages of, 21. 
vs. grain farming, 19. 
comparison of crop yields, 126. 
Locomotion in the horse, 362-4. 
Loggers, 442-3. 
Loretta D., record of, 166. 

Manure, value of, 20. 
Marbling in beef, 50-2. 
Mare, best type of, for horse breeding, 
463-4. 
mule breeding, 468. 
definition of, 346. 
working the brood, 459. 
yeld, definition of, 347. 
Margin in cattle feeding, 96-7. 
Market cattle, how classed and 
graded, 119-22. 
class, definition of, 106. 
classes and grades of cattle, 106- 
24. 
horses, 438-56. 
mules, 472-9. 
sheep, 215-34. 
swine, 322-31. 
wool, 262-7. 



Market classes, Continued. 
average prices of — 

cattle, 122-4. 
horses, 455-6. 
sheep, 233-4. 
swine, 330. 
demands, importance of, to breed- 
er and feeder, 21. 
grade, definition of, 107. 
receipts, cattle, 71-2. 
horses, 438. 
sheep, 214. 
swine, 319. 
requirements for horses, 439-41. 
mules, 472-4. 
Marketing, seasonal variations in, 
cattle, 72. 
hogs, 321, 331. 
sheep, 214. 
wool properly, 276-7. 
zone system of, at Chicago, 72-3 
Markets, American cattle, 71-84. 
hog, 319-20. 
horse, 438. 
sheep, 214. 
development of large, 74-5. 
early cattle, 73. 
hog, past and present, 314-21. 
Mast, 332. 

Meat consumption in various coun- 
tries, 24, 297-8. 
industry, three eras in, 80. 
packing, development at Chi- 
cago, 315. 
production, in U. S., in 1909, 24. 
world total, 24. 
Merino, classes of, 251-3. 

importance of the, in U. S., 245. 
type, description of, 245-54. 
Milk cistern, 157. 

cows, see Dairy cows, 
ducts, 157-8. 
effect of feed on, 170-1. 
mirror, 149-50. 

nature and composition of , 160-1. 
production, breeding for, 172-9. 
cause of variation in, 167-70. 
in U. S., in 1918, 24-5. 
of average dairy cow, 164. 
secretion, 155-63. 

stimuli to, 163. 
veins, 148-9. 
wells, 149. 

yield per cow in 1918, 24-5. 
Milkers and springers, 119. 
Milking qualities, importance of, 

in beef cows, 135-6. 
Mining mules, 475. 
Mohair, 278. 
Moonblindness, 488-9. 
Morgan horse, origin of, 379. 
Motor, effect of, on horse industry, 
382. 



500 



Index 



Mule, 468-71. 

and horse compared, 469-71. 
best type of, 469. 
Mules, market classes of, 472-9. 

^requirements for, 472-4. 
number, value, and distribution 
in U. S., 466-7. 
Muscle, effect of feed on, in steers, 36. 
Muscular system of horse, 349-50. 
Mutton and lamb carcass, 203-13. 

consumption in various coun- 
tries, 297-8. 
wholesale cuts of, 206. 
breeding ewe, type desired in, 
240-3. 
ram, type desired in, 
237-40. 
carcass and pelt, 203-13, 

classes and grades of, 207. 
qualifications of a good, 

207-9. 
wholesale prices of, 207. 
pounds produced per head of 

stock ewes, 237. 
recent demands for, 203. 
sheep, breeds of, 192. 
class, 218-26. 

increase in numbers in U. S., 
236. 
type, description of, 194-202. 

Native sheep, characteristics of, 216. 
Navicular disease, 487-8. 
Nervous system of horse, 350. 
Noils, 258. 
Norfolk trotter, origin of, 378. 

Offal of cattle, 41. 

hogs, 299-300. 

sheep, 205. 
Oleo oil, source of, 213. 
Oleomargarine, manufacture of, 57-8. 
Origin of breeds of horses, 374-83. 
types of horses, 374-83. 

Pace, slow, described, 422. 
Pacing gait described, 415-6. 

records, 411. 
Pack and riding mules, 478-9. 
Packing hogs, 323-4. 

-house by-products from cattle, 
57-62. 
hogs, 312, 317-8. 
sheep, 212-3. 
industry, development of, 79-80. 

three eras in, 80. 
plant, the modern, 82-3. 
plants, owners of, at Chicago, 80. 
pork, past and present, 314-21. 
Paddling, 369. 
Park horses, 451. 

Pasterns, slope of, effect on action, 
369. 



Pedigree, dangers of, 178. 

important in swine breeding, 

343-4. 
value of, in selecting dairy bull, 

176-8. 
with performance, 176-8. 
Pelt of sheep, value and use of, 210-2. 
Periodic opthalmia, 488-9. 
Pigs, on the market, 327. 
feeding, 328. 
roasting, 329. 
see Hog, Pork, and Swine. 
Pluck, 205, 212. 
Plug horses, 455. 
mules, 479. 
Pododerm, 357. 
Poll evil, 489. 
Polo, history of, 433-4. 

pony, description of, 433-7. 
origin of, 378. 
production of, 436-7. 
Ponies, 455. 
Pony breeding, 463. 
Population, agricultural, 23-4. 

of U. S., 23-4. 
Pork, consumption of, in various 
countries, 297-8. 
exports of, 318-9. 
high fuel value of, 336-7. 
importing countries, 318-9. 
packing, development at Chi- 
cago, 315. 
past and present, 314-21. 
produced per head stock of hogs, 

337. 
products, exports of, 318-9. 

value of, 300-1. 
salt, fat, and lean compared, 336. 
wholesale cuts of, 301-3. 
trade in, 300-1. 
Pregnancy, duration of, in cows, 137. 
ewes, 240. 
mares, 464. 
sows, 344. 
Prices at Chicago, for cattle, 122-4. 
hogs, 330. 
horses, 455-6. 
sheep, 233-4. 
Prime heavy hogs, 322. 
Prolificacy in swine, 343. 
Purebred, definition of, 127. 

Rack described, 422. 

Railroads, early shipments of cattle 

by, 75. 
Ram, definition of, 193. 

mutton breeding, type desired 

in, 237-40. 
number of ewes to breed to, 240. 
Rambouillet, 253-4. 
Range cattle breeding, in various 
states, f 129-30. 
on the market, 110-2. 



Index 



501 



Range breeding, Continued. 

horses, 454-5. 

sheep, 216. 
Receipts at leading markets — 

cattle, 71-2. 

hogs, 319. 

horses, 438. 

sheep, 214. 
Records, fastest trotting and pacing, 
410. 

highest, by dairy cows, 166-7. 

value of, in breeding for beef, 137. 
dairy cattle, 175. 
Refrigeration, artificial, 81. 
Refrigerator car, 80-1. 
Renick, George, cattle feeding opera- 
tions of, 73-4. 
Respiratory system of horse, 350. 
Ringbone, 489. 
Road horse class, 451-2. 

puff, 492. 
Roadster type, description of, 409-17. 

origin of, 379. 
Roaring, 489-90. 
Roasting pigs, 329. 
Roughs, 327. 

Hudimentaries of bull, 154. 
Runabout horses, 451-2. 
Running horse, origin of, 375. 
walk described, 422. 

Saddle Horse, American, origin of, 
379-80. 
class, 453-4. 
first, origin of, 374-5. 
type, description of, 
418-27. 
Sand crack, 490. 
Sausage casings, 212. 
Scouring wool, 270-1. 
Scrub animal, definition of, 127. 
Secretion of milk, 155-63. 
Sex differences in beef carcasses, 54. 
Shadybrook Gerben, record of, 166. 
Shearing sheep, 255. 

hand vs. machine, 276. 
Shearling, definition of, 193. 
Sheep and lambs, marketing by 
seasons, 214. 
number slaughtered in 
U.S., 214. 
at Chicago, number, value, and 

weight of, 214. 
branding with paint, 275. 
breeding for the market, 235-44. 
breeds, 192. 

wool of, classified, 267. 
by-products from slaughtering, 

212-3. 
carcass, 203-10. 
caul, 204-5. 

charges for selling at Chicago, 
215. 



Sheep and lambs. Continued. 
dead, 233. 
dressing, method of, 204-5. 

percentage of, 205. 
industry in U. S., in early times, 

235-6. 
increase in numbers in U. S., 236. 
market classes and grades of, 

215-34. 
markets, 214-5. 

in U. S., 214. 
most profitable kind to grow, 193. 
native and western, 216-8. 
number, value, and distribution 

in U. S., 236. 
offal, 205. 

pelts, value of, 210-2. 
prices at Chicago, 233-4. 

highest and lowest months, 
234. 
raising, advantages of, 189-91. 

present status of, 189. 
see Lamb and Mutton, 
shearing, 255. 
skins, value of, 212. 
slaughter at markets, locally, 
and on farms, 214. 
by Chicago packers, 214-5. 
in per cent, stock of ewes, 
237. 
slaughtering, 203-4. 
terms, definition of, 193. 
types of, 191-3. 
Shoddy, 259. 
Shoe boil, 484. 
Shote, definition of, 281. 
Shrinkage of beef cattle in transit, 81. 

wools, 267. 
Sickle hocks, 369-70. 
Sidebone, 490-1. 
Skeleton of horse, 348. 

man and horse compared, 354-5. 
Skins of goats, value of, 212. 
sheep, value of, 212. 
Slaughter at Chicago, number of 
calves, 80. 
cattle, 72, 80. 
hogs, 317. 
sheep, 214-5. 
Slaughter in per cent, of breeding 
stock — ■ 
cattle and calves, 125. 
sheep and lambs, 237. 
market, local, and farm^ 
of cattle and calves, 72. 
goats and kids, 214. 
hogs, 319. 

sheep and lambs, 214. 
of hogs in per cent, of total stock, 
337. 
pork compared to beef and 
mutton, 297-8. 
see Dressing. 



502 



Index 



Slaughtering and dressing cattle, 40-1. 
hogs, 298-9. 
sheep, 203-5. 
Sloan, Tod, his method of riding, 363. 
Soil fertility, maintenance of, 20. 
Southern chunks, 444. 
Soundness in breeding ewes, 231. 
Sow, age to begin breeding, 334. 
definition of, 281. 
type desired in, 339-44. 
Spanish horse, origin of, 375. 

Merino, 245. 
Spavins, 481-3. 

Spayed heifer, definition of, 26. 
Spaying heifers, reasons for, 93-4. 
Splint, 491. 
Spring lambs, 219-20. 
Springers, 119. 
Sprung knees, 491. 
Stag, definition of, 26, 193, 281, 347. 
Stags, 327-8. 

and bulls on market, 113. 
Stalhon, definition of, 346. 

type desired in, 465. 
Standardbred horse, origin of, 379. 

see Roadster. 
Stearin, 58, 312. 
Steer class on market, 107-10. 

definition of, 26. 
Steers, changes in due to feeding, 36-8. 
gains in different feeding periods, 

52. 
see Cattle and Feeder, 
•weighty at various ages, 39, 
Stepping pace described, 422. 
Stock and feeding cows, 117. 
Stocker and feeder cattle — 

decline in production, 126. 

sale by seasons, 95. 

see Feeder. 

sub-classes and grades of, 

115-7. 
where bought, 95. 
Stomach worm of sheep, 217-8. 
Stringhalt, 491-2. 
Sugar mules, 476. 
Suprarenalin, 213. 
Sweetbreads, 58. 

Swine, advantages of raising, 279-80. 
breeds of, 281. 
see Hog, Pig, and Pork, 
types of, 280. 
Swollen legs, 492. 

Teats of dairy cow, 147. 

structure of, 157. 
Teeth as indication of age of cattle, 39. 
horses, 370-2. 
sheep, 202. 
Temperament, dairy, 150. 
discussion of, 150. 



Tests of dairy cows at expositions, 
164-6. 
value of, 175. 
Texas and western range cattle, 110-2. 

long-horn cattle, 110-1. 
Thick wind, 489-90. 
Thoroughbred, origin of, 375. 
Thoroughpin, 492. 
Thyroidin, 213. 

Three-gaited saddle horse, 423-4. 
Throw-out lambs, 233. 
Thrush, 492. 
Top, 258-9. 
Tractor, effect of, on horse industry, 

382. 
Transportation, early methods of, 

73-4. 
Tripe, 212. 

Trot, fox, described, 422. 
Trotting gait described, 415. 
horse, origin of, 379. 
records, 410. 
Turk horse, origin of, 375. 
Two-shear, definition of, 193. 
Two-tooth, definition of, 193. 
Type, definition of, 25. 

of horse to breed, choice of, 460-1. 
value of, in beef making, 63-70. 
Types of cattle, 25. 
horses, 383. 

effects of mechanical in- 
ventions on, 381-2. 
origin of, 374-83. 
sheep, 191-3. 
swine, 280. 

Udder of cow, structure of, 155-7. 

dairy cow, 146-7. 
Union Stock Yards, Chicago — 
charges for buying hogs, 328. 
corn, 322. 
hay, 83. 

inspection of hogs, 322. 
selling cattle and calves, 83 . 
hogs, 322. 

sheep and goats, 215. 
yardage of cattle, 83. 
hogs, 322. 
sheep, 215. 
description of, 76-8. 
founding of, 76. 
growth as hog market, 319-20. 
prices for cattle and calves, 122-4. 
hogs, 330. 
horses, 455-6. 
sheep, 233-4. 
receipts, cattle, 71. 
hogs, 319-20. 
horses, 438. 
sheep, 214. 
sources of, 79. 
see Chicago. 



Index 



503 



Unsoundness in the horse, 480-92. 
U. S. bacon hogs, 326. 

Variations in usefulness of dairy- 
cows, 164-71. 
Veal calves, 118-9. 

consumption in various coun- 
tries, 297-8. 
pounds produced per head of 

cows, 125. 
see Calves. 
Walk, running, described, 422. 
Wagon horses, 444-9. 
Walk, trot, canter horse, 423-4. 
War Horse, origin of, 375-6. 
Weanling, definition of, 346. 
Weeds, 455. 

Weight, dressed, average of calves, 42. 
cattle, 42. 
hogs, 300. 
lambs, 205. 
sheep, 205. 
for age, beef bulls and cows, 131. 
draft horses, 399. 
lard hogs, 289. 
steers, 39. 
importance of, in draft horses, 

384-5. 
live, average of slaughtered 
calves, 42. 
cattle, 42. 
hogs, 300. 
lambs, 205. 
sheep, 205. 
of hogs, most profitable, 339. 
Weights of early cattle, 85-7. 
hogs, 337-9. 
hogs at Chicago, by months, 

320-1. 
horses, 442. 
Western range cattle, 110-2. 

breeding in various states, 129-30. 
receipts at Chicago, 71. 
Western sheep, characteristics of, 216. 

prices at Chicago, 233-4. 
Wether, definition of, 193. 
Wethers, fat, 225-6. 

feeder, 230. 
Wheel mules, 478. 
Whistling, 490. 
Wholesale cuts of beef, 42-4. 

mutton and lamb, 206. 
pork, 301-3. 
Wiltshire side, 307-8. 
Windgall, 492. 

Wool, Australian plan of handling, 
277-8. 
black, 270, 276. 
buck fleeces, 276. 
burs in, 275. 
carbonization of, 271. 
character, 274. 
clip of world, 271. 
consumption per capita, 255. 



Wool, Continued. 

cotted or matted, 276. 

dyeing, 259. 

factors determining value of, 

273-6. 
fiber, strength of, 275. 

structure of, 255-7. 
fineness of, 257. 
frowzy, 268. 
grading, 262. 

imports and exports, 272-3. 
market classes and grades, 262-7 
marketing properly, 276-7. 
markets in America, 273. 
packing, 276. 
painted, 275. 
pooling by growers, 278. 
pounds per pound of cloth, 259. 
prices of scoured and raw, 274. 
-producing states, 272. 
production in U. S., 271-2. 
pulling, 269-70. 
scouring, 270-1. 
see Fleece and Wools, 
shearing, hand vs. machine, 276. 
shrinkage, 272, 273-4. 

of various grades, 267. 
sorting, 268-9. 
tags, 275. 

tying fleece, 275-6. 
wet, 275. 
Woolens and worsteds, 258-9. 
Wools, American, how to improve, 277. 
and wool growing, 255-78. 
bright and semi-bright, 260. 
carpet, 259-60. 
classifications of, 259-67. 
clipped and pulled, 259. 
combing and clothing, values of, 

262. 
domestic and territory, 259-61. 

classes and grades of, 262-7. 
Ohio, 260. 

see Fleece and Wool, 
washed, unmerchantable, and 

unwashed, 261-2. 
World's record dairy cows, 166-7. 
trotting and pacing records, 

410-11. 
Worms, stomach, of sheep, 217-8. 
Worsteds and woolens, 258-9. 

Yardage charges at Chicago — 
cattle and calves, 83. 
hogs, 322. 

sheep and goats, 215. 
Yearling sheep, fat, 224-5. 

feeders, 229. 
Yeld mare, definition of, 347. 
Yolk, 200. 

secretion and composition, 257-8. 

Zone system of marketing at Chicago, 
72-3. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



002 827 392 7, 



